realzione laurea con titolo inglese

ALMAMATERSTUDIORUM

UNIVERSITA’DIBOLOGNA

SCUOLADIINGEGNERIAEARCHITETTURA

CorsodiLaureaMagistraleinIngegneriadeiSistemiEdilizie

Urbani

SustainabledesignofthePeterKiewitInstituteextensionat

theUniversityofNebraska–Omaha,accordingtothe

LEEDstandardsfor“Materials&Resources”and

“Energy&Atmosphere”categories.

RelatoreCandidata

Prof.ErnestoAntoniniElisaPorisini

Correlatore

Prof.AverySchwer

IIISessione

AnnoAccademico2014/2015

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Index

1.EXECUTIVESUMMARY............................................................................................3

2.INTRODUCTION-ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTOFBUILDINGS....................5

3.WHATISGREENBUILDING?..................................................................................7

4.GREENBUILDINGINTHEUNITEDSTATES......................................................94.1ABRIEFHISTORYOFGREENBUILDINGINTHEUS.....................................................................................................94.2GREENBUILDINGINDUSTRY.........................................................................................................................................12

5.5LEEDRATINGSYSTEMOVERVIEW................................................................135.1RATINGSYSTEMDEVELOPMENTANDEVOLUTION....................................................................................................135.2RATINGSYSTEMSTRUCTURE.........................................................................................................................................17

6.LEEDGUIDE.............................................................................................................376.1PREREQUISITES,CREDITSANDCREDITWEIGHTS......................................................................................................376.2ENERGYANDATMOSPHERE..........................................................................................................................................426.2.1.Minimumenergyandperformance.................................................................................................................436.2.2.Renewableenergy...................................................................................................................................................466.2.3.Ongoingenergyperformance............................................................................................................................47

6.3.MATERIALSANDRESOURCES.......................................................................................................................................486.3.1.Conductinglife-cycleassessmentofbuildingmaterialstodetermineselection..........................496.3.2.Buildingmaterialslife-cycleimpacts.............................................................................................................516.3.3.Wastemanagement...............................................................................................................................................53

7.CASESTUDY:PETERKIEWITINSTITUTE-UNIVERSITYOFOMAHA

NEBRASKA....................................................................................................................567.1PROJECTOVERVIEW........................................................................................................................................................567.1.1.Requestofproposalobjectives...........................................................................................................................577.1.2.Facilityrequirements.............................................................................................................................................60

7.2.SITESURVEY....................................................................................................................................................................637.3.MATERIALSANDRESOURCESELECTION....................................................................................................................677.4.AUTODESKREVITENERGYSIMULATION....................................................................................................................71

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7.5.HEATINGSYSTEMSELECTION......................................................................................................................................847.6.LEEDRATINGASSESSMENT.........................................................................................................................................867.6.1.Materials&Resource.............................................................................................................................................867.6.2.Energy&Atmosphere............................................................................................................................................88

7.7.MODIFICATIONSINMATERIALSANDEQUIPMENTABLETOIMPROVETHEBUILDINGPERFORMANCES.........93

8.CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................97

9.REFERENCES............................................................................................................99

10.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................................................................101

11.ATTACHMENTS.........................................................................................................11.1.TABLE0:PROJECTOVERVIEW........................................................................................................................................11.2.TABLE1:CLIMATEANALYSIS.........................................................................................................................................11.3.TABLE2A:FLOORPLANS.................................................................................................................................................11.4.TABLE2B:FLOORPLANS.................................................................................................................................................11.5.TABLE3:SECTIONS...........................................................................................................................................................11.6.TABLE4:ELEVATIONS.....................................................................................................................................................11.7.TABLE5:RENDERINGAND3DVIEWS...........................................................................................................................

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1. Executive summary

The following thesis illustrates the sustainable design case study of the

extension for the Peter Kiewit Institute, head office of the College of

Engineering and College of IS&T of the University of Nebraska in

Omaha, throughout the definition of design aspects such as materials,

building and mechanical technologies, focusing on the study of energy

efficiency and applying as implementing criteria and parameters LEED

guidelines (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) developed

by USGBC (United States Green Building Council).

The Peter Kiewit Institute was master planned for future modifications

and extensions, therefore due to the recent increase of students

enrollments, the University of Nebraska has decided to expand the

building applying principles of sustainable design and creating a so-

called “green building”. The project comprehends the extension of the

existing building in the south-east area, in order to create a unique

corridor connecting the two wings of the building eliminating every

discontinuity.

This will improve the flexibility and integrate the two colleges that occupy

the building and create potential new indoor outdoor views that augment

visual evidence to the visitor and the user that this is a high performance

environment of innovative research that leverages the collaborative

opportunities between the two colleges.

The new spaces will have to be designed with adaptation and flexibility

characteristics for future concepts of research and learning and meet the

requirements for LEED certification.

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The thesis will focus on the design of a building that meets and applies

the concepts of sustainability for the Materials and Resources, Energy

and Atmosphere categories. The objectives for the design are:

maintaining the concept of "building laboratory" which means, create a

complex in which students can observe the various building systems;

improve mentoring and counseling services for students with special

offices, providing new classrooms, laboratories, offices for university

staff; create spaces to host summer camps, seminars, workshops for

research in the fields of study offered by the institution; providing an

auditorium for conferences and

graduation sessions; promote the development of the South Pacific

University Campus equipping the building library service, thus reducing

urban traffic into and within the North Campus, where currently resides

the only university library. On the basis of a previously created

architectural model, the concepts mentioned above, a deeper

investigation will be conducted on the energy efficiency point of view, to

pursue a reduction of waste and energy consumption through the

appropriate selection of materials, construction methods and mechanical

systems, a reduction of the total quantity of raw construction materials,

privileging those with lowest environmental impact in terms of processing

and transportation, as well as the use of recycled building materials. The

research will try to provide a building that responds to the requirements

established by the Materials and resources and, Energy and

Atmosphere LEED credits system.

Since the extension architectural model of the PKI Institute was created

with Revit (Fig.1), on the basis of this draft hypothesize of the building

materials and construction systems. The first phase of the project will

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consist in making inquiries and gather information about sustainable

materials, construction and mechanical systems and analysis. Defined

materials and equipment, all the gathered data will be applied to the

building model with Autodesk Revit software, and a certain number of

energy simulations will be performed. The results will be evaluated in

order to identify the most effective measurement of efficiency and modify

the model parameters referred to materials to improve the building

energy performance.

Figure 1. Peter Kiewit Extension project and exiting building mass.

2. Introduction - Environmental Impact of Buildings

The construction industry is a major contributor to the environmental

issue, because of the exploitation of nonrenewable materials resources,

land use, energy consumption related to all stages of the life cycle of a

building product and production of demolition waste.

Buildings generate impacts on the environment not only during its

construction, but also throughout the whole process, procurement and

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control of the raw materials, production and transport to the building

demolition and disposal of debris . On the other hand the use of the

building generates impacts in order to guarantee conditions of comfort

and inner well-being, thus interacting with the inhabitants needs and

providing them with a viable and adequate environment to the activities

that take place in them. Therefore it affects the creation of environmental

impacts, which occur both as consumption of resources as an

environmental pollution. The environmental impact of buildings is also

dominated by the use of energy demand for operation. However,

construction material impact (embodied impact) moves into focus to

construct increasingly energy efficient buildings. The choice of

constructional material influences the operational energy demand of

buildings. This is due to the differences in physical properties, such as

thermal inertia or resistance. The capacity to store thermal energy over

time differs greatly for different materials. For instance, wooden exterior

walls may have one-third of the active thermal mass in comparison to

brick or concrete walls, depending on the composition. This difference

may result in an increased space heat and cooling demand. The

influence of thermal mass on the heat balance depends on several

factors, such as the climatic conditions at the building location.

Buildings account for 40% of worldwide energy use which is much more

than transportation. Furthermore, over the next 25 years, CO2 emissions

from buildings are projected to grow faster than any other sector (in the

USA), with emissions from commercial buildings projected to grow the

fastest—1.8% a year through 2030.1 1 United States Department of Energy - http://energy.gov/

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In order to decrease environmental impact due to constructions,

sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental

impact of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials,

energy, and development space, using a conscious approach to energy

and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment.

3. What is Green Building?

Sustainability is not just a one-time treatment or product. It is a process

applied to buildings, their site, interiors, their operations and the

communities in which they are situated. Sustainable building incorporates

planning, design, construction, operation and end-of-life recycling or

renewal of structures. A study conducted by the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA), found that people in the U.S. spend on

average 90% of their time indoors. Occupants of green buildings are

usually exposed to lower levels of indoor pollutants and are generally

more satisfied of internal conditions given by lighting and air quality than

occupants in conventional buildings.

The resources used to create a building and the energy, water and

materials needed to operate it have a significant effect on the

environment and human health. In the United States building account for:

- 14% of potable water consumption

- 30% of waste output

- 40% of raw materials use

- 38% of carbon dioxide emissions

- 24% to 50% of energy use

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- 72% of electricity consumption

By building green environmental damage can be reduced and it can also

enhance the health of the environment and the people who live in it.

(New Building Institute: energy use intensities for sustainable designed

U.S. Government buildings 2015)2. Further more Electrical generation

and distribution in the United States are very inefficient. Typical coal-fired

power plants are approximately 30% to 35% efficient, and distribution

losses are approximately 7% to 10%. Consequently, for every 10 units of

energy that go into a coal plant, only 3 to 4 units are actually delivered to

a home. Even more energy is required to mine and transport the coal to

power plants. Saving energy at the point of use significantly magnifies

the impact in terms of both efficiency and pollution reduction (Fig. 2). In

this example, you can see the overall efficiency of converting coal

(chemical energy) into light energy in the home. The total efficiency of the

system is the percent efficiency of each component multiplied together.

Figure 2. USA Electrical generation and distribution systems inefficiency in 2013.

2 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

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4. Green Building in the United States

4.1 A Brief History of Green Building in the US

Green building has its roots in the early solar builders, most of whom

began working during the first oil crisis in the late 1970s. Although the

scale of the solar movement was limited through the 1980s and early

1990s, many industry leaders worked on research projects involving

high-performance buildings that helped to establish the core concepts of

building science, a key component of green building. One of the first organized green home programs to appear was in Austin,

Texas, where Austin Energy, the city-owned electric utility, recognized

the need to reduce electricity demand to avoid the construction of

another power plant. Austin Energy’s residential energy efficiency

program was founded in 1985 and, in 1991, evolved into Austin Energy

Green Building®. Through the 1990s, several more local programs

appeared, including Built Green® Colorado, Built Green® Washington,

and Earth- Craft HouseTM.

In 1995, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) introduced the

ENERGY STAR for Homes program. This certification provides owners

the assurance that their homes are more efficient than standard

construction. ENERGY STAR strictly evaluates the energy efficiency of a

home and was not designed as a green building program. The EPA

originally developed the ENERGY STAR program to certify energy-

efficient electronics and appliances. Today, over 50 different types of

products may achieve the ENERGY STAR certification, and the logo is

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one of the most recognized brands in America.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, local green home certification

programs began appearing across the United States. Approximately 100

different local and regional programs are currently available throughout

the country (Table 1.5). Filling a void in the marketplace, these green

building programs essentially became the definition and identity of green

building nationwide. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) was

established in 1993 and released its Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design (LEED) program in 1998. 3 (Fig.3)

Figure 3. USGBC fields of intervention.

This national green certification program launched a rating system that

takes into account the eight principles of green building (as previously

discussed, but with different labels and category groupings) within the

3 Green Building - Principles & Practices in residential construction - Abe Kruger, Carl Seville, Delmar Cengage Learning, 2013.

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context of all types of commercial construction. Today, the USGBC

comprises 78 local affiliates, more than 20,000 member companies and

organizations, and more than 100,000 LEED Accredited Professionals.

USGBC introduced the pilot version of LEED for Homes in 2004, and the

program was officially released nationally in 2008. LEED for Homes is

designed to be among the most stringent green home programs, aiming

this program at the top 25% of builders in the United States. In

2005, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) released NAHB

Model Green Home Building Guidelines, a book designed to provide

builders with guidance on making their projects green. In 2007, the

NAHB and the International Code Council (ICC) partnered to develop the

National Green Building Standard. In 2008 the NAHB Research Center

began certifying homes under the guidelines through the NAHB Green

program. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)–approved

ICC 700-2008 National Green Building Standard for single and

multifamily homes, residential remodeling projects, and site development

projects. The NAHB Research Center began certifying single and

multifamily homes and renovations under the new standard in 2009.

Certification under the original 2005 Green Home Guidelines was

discontinued in 2010. As energy codes become more stringent, higher

performance homes will become standard. Some states, particularly

California, have rigorous energy codes and emissions limits for building

materials that are designed to improve indoor environmental quality. As

people learn more about the benefits of green homes, the demand for

green building will continue to increase. Many industry leaders believe

that basic green building will ultimately become the minimum standard,

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and “green” as a differentiator will begin to fade away. This transition,

however, will likely evolve slowly over many years.

4.2 Green Building industry

Most of the green building elements aren’t new, in fact, before the wide

spread of fossil fuel use for energy and transportation, builders used

principles of passive design by capturing sunlight and wind for natural

lighting, heating and cooling. Sustainable buildings represent a return to

low-tech solutions by using high-tech technology. Green building is about

combining solutions to build an environment that integrates the best of

the new and old.

The USGBC was formed in 1992 and soon after it was formed it begin

developing LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) for

rating and certifying the sustainability of buildings in the United States.

Experts identified characteristic and performance levels to define a green

building. The first LEED rating system was launched in 1999 and in the

decade that followed, it developed rating systems for the entire lifecycle

of the built environment.

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5.5 LEED rating system overview

Leadership in energy and environmental design (LEED) LEED is a third-party green building certification program and the

nationally accepted benchmark for design, construction, and operation of

high-performance green buildings and neighborhoods. The rating

systems give building owners and operators the tools they need to have

an immediate and measurable effect on their buildings’ performance. By

promoting a whole-building approach to sustainability, LEED recognizes

performance in location and planning, sustainable site development,

water savings, energy efficiency, materials selection, indoor

environmental quality, innovative strategies, and attention to priority

regional issues. Additionally, LEED addresses all building types through

different rating systems and rating systems adaption.4

5.1 Rating system development and evolution

Since its launch in 2000, LEED has been evolving to address new

markets and building types, advances in practice and technology, and

greater understanding of the environmental and human health impacts of

the built environment. These ongoing improvements to LEED are based

on principles of transparency, openness and inclusiveness involving

volunteer committees and working groups, as well as USGBC, staff and

approval by a membership-wide vote.

LEED is updated through a regular development cycle for revisions to the

rating system. There are three basic types of LEED development:


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● Implementation and maintenance of current version. LEED

rating systems are continually improved through the correction and

clarification of credit language. These updates are published as

quarterly addenda and include LEED interpretations (see below).5

● LEED rating system adaptations. Credit adaptations address

both specific space types and international projects, meeting the

needs of projects that would otherwise be unable to participate in

LEED. Currently, four adaptations are available.6 ● Next version of LEED. A periodic evaluation and revision process

leads to comprehensive improvement of the rating systems. This

phase includes multiple avenues for stakeholders input and final

approval by USGBC members. The ideas generated during the

development of next-version LEED credits are often pilot-tested by

LEED project teams prior to ballot.7

Additionally, the LEED Pilot Credit Library plays an important role in the

evolution of LEED. Pilot credits are tested across all rating system types

and credit categories and include credits proposed for the next version of

LEED. Project teams may attempt any of these pilot credits under the

Innovation categories and earn points by providing USGBC with

feedback on the credits’ efficiency and achievability. USGBC collects and

integrates this feedback to refine the pilot credits, and worthwhile credits

are then added to the balloted LEED rating system.

5 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 6 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 7 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

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Life cycle costing

Green building consider the life cycle approach, which means all the life

of the building is taken into consideration. It starts with pre design

decisions that set goals and a program to follow. It continues with

location selection, design, construction, operations and maintenance,

refurbishment, and renovation. (Fig.4) A building cycle ends with

demolition or preferably reuse. Life cycle costing looks at purchase and

operating costs as relative savings over the life of the building or product.

It calculates payback period for first costs, providing a context for making

decisions about initial investments. LCC can be used in comparing

alternatives with different initial and operating costs.8 For a building this

usually includes different types of cost:

● initial purchase, acquisition, or construction

● fuel

● operation, maintenance and repair

● replacement

● disposal (or residual value for resale or salvage)

● finance charges

● other intangible benefits or costs

Goals

Avoid contributing to greenhouse gas emissions

Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30% by 2030

Reduce the amount of fossil fuels used in mechanical systems

8 National Renewable Energy Laboratory - US Life-Cycle Inventory Database, htto://www.nrel.gov/lci/

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Figure 4. The life cycle of a home.

LEED rating systems

Comprehensive and flexible, LEED is applicable to buildings at any stage

in their life cycles. New construction, ongoing operations and

maintenance of an existing building are all addressed by LEED rating

systems. The rating systems and their companion reference guides help

teams make the right green building decisions for their projects through

an integrated process, ensuring that building systems work together

effectively. Through an integrated process, ensuring that building

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systems work together effectively. Through a consensus-based process,

the rating systems are continually evaluated and regularly updated to

respond to new technologies and policies and to changes in the built

environment. In this way, as yesterday’s innovation becomes today’s

standard of practice, USGBC and LEED continue to push forward market

transformation. The following project types and scopes are addressed by

LEED rating systems:9

● LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations

● LEED for Core and Shell

● LEED for Commercial Interiors

● LEED for Schools

● LEED for Healthcare

● LEED for Retail

● LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations and Maintenance

● LEED for Neighborhood Development

5.2 Rating system structure

The LEED rating systems consist of prerequisites and credits.

Prerequisites are required elements or green building strategies that

must be included in any LEED-certified project. Credits are optional

elements that projects can elect to pursue to gain points toward LEED

certification.

Achieving LEED certification requires satisfying all prerequisites and

earning a minimum number of credits. Each LEED rating system

corresponds to a LEED reference guide that explains credit criteria, 9 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

18

describes the benefits of complying with the credit, suggests approaches

to achieving credit compliance.

Although the organization of prerequisites and credits varies slightly

depending on the building type and associated rating system, LEED is

generally organized by the following broad concepts:

● Sustainable sites. Choosing a building’s site and managing that

site during construction are important considerations for a project’s

sustainability. LEED credits addressing sustainable sites

discourage development of previously undeveloped land and

damage to ecosystems and waterways; they encourage regionally

appropriate landscaping, smart transportation choices, control of

stormwater runoff, and reduced erosion, light pollution, heat island

effect, and construction related pollution. LEED also emphasizes

location and transportation issues by rewarding development that

preserves environmentally sensitive places and takes advantage of

existing infrastructure, community resources, and transit. It

encourages access to open space for walking, physical activity,

and time spent outdoors. 10 ● Water. Buildings are major users our potable water supply. The

goal of credits addressing water efficiency is to encourage smarter

use of water, inside and out. Water reduction is typically achieved

through more efficient appliances, fixtures, and fitting inside and

water-wise landscaping outside.11

10 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 11 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

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● Energy. LEED encourages a wide variety of strategies to address

energy consumption, including commissioning; energy use

monitoring; efficient design and construction; efficient appliances,

systems, and lighting; and the use of renewable and clean sources

of energy, generated on-site or off site. 12

● Materials and resources. During both construction and

operations, buildings generate large amount of waste and use

tremendous volumes of materials and resources. These credits

encourage the selection of sustainably grown, harvested, produced

and transported products and materials. They promote the

reduction of waste as well as reuse and recycling, and they take

into account the reduction of waste at a product’s source.13 ● Indoor environmental quality. The average American spends

about 90% of the day indoors, where pollutant concentrations may

be two to hundred times higher than outdoor levels. Thus indoor air

quality can be significantly worse than outside. LEED credits

promote strategies that can improve indoor air, provide access to

natural daylight and views, and improve acoustics.14 ● Awareness and education. A building’s occupants need to

understand what makes their building green and have the tools to

make the most of its features. The LEED for Homes rating system

has a separate category to emphasize the role homebuilders and

real estate professionals play in interpreting these systems and

features for homeowners. In rating systems geared toward


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commercial buildings, awareness and education are addressed

under innovation.

● Innovation. LEED promotes innovation in design and operations

by offering bonus points for improving a building’s performance well

beyond what is required by the credits or for incorporating green

building ideas that are not specifically addressed elsewhere in the

rating system. This credit category also rewards the inclusion of a

LEED Accredited Professional on the project team. Additionally,

teams may earn credit in this category for an education plan that

shares green building information with occupants and the public.15 ● Regional priority. USGBC’s regional councils, chapters, and

affiliates have identified the environmental concerns that are most

important for every region of the country, and six LEED credits that

address those local priorities have been selected for each region. A

project team that earns a regional priority credit earns one bonus

point in addition to any points awarded for that credit. Up to four

extra points can be earned in this way. LEED for Neighborhood Development diverges significantly from other

rating systems and is organized around three main categories, focusing

on where, what, and how to build green at a community scale. 16

● Smart location and linkages. This section of the rating systems

provides guidance on where the project is built, encouraging the

selection of sites with existing services and transit. ● Neighborhood pattern and design. Neighborhoods should be

compact, complete, connected, and convivial. The intent of credits


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in this category is to create environments that are walkable, vibrant

with the mixed-use establishments, and connected to the larger

community. ● Green infrastructure and buildings. This category focuses on

measures that can reduce the environmental harms associated

with the construction and the operation of buildings and

infrastructure within neighborhoods, with a goal of not just reducing

the environmental consequences, but also enhancing the natural

environment.

Additionally, LEED emphasizes the critical role of the integrated process

and ongoing performance monitoring across all phases and projects

types.

LEED rating systems generally have 100 base points plus six Innovation

points and four Regional Priority points, for a total of 110 points. The

level of certification for commercial projects is determined according to

the following scale (Fig.5) :

- Certified, 40-49 points

- Silver, 50-59 points

- Gold, 60-79 points

- Platinum, 80+ points

LEED for Homes certification levels vary slightly because the rating

system is based on a 125-point scale, plus 11 innovation points.17


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Figure 5. Range of LEED certifications 2016.

Energy and Atmosphere ENERGY STAR portfolio Manager is an interactive online management

tool set up by EPA and part of the ENERGY STAR program. (Fig.6)18

It supports tracking and assessment of energy and water consumption.

In portfolio Manager a score of 50 represents average building

performance. The design and operation of buildings, neighborhoods, and

communities can dramatically incentive energy efficiency and benefits

from cleaner, renewable energy supplies.

Following an integrated process helps identify synergistic strategies for

the following areas:

● Energy demand

● Energy efficiency

● Renewable energy

● Ongoing performance

18 Energy Star Government, https://www.energystar.gov/

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Energy demand

Saving energy begins with reducing energy demand, conservation.

Green buildings can reduce demand for energy by capturing natural,

incident energy such as sunlight, wind and geothermal potential, to

reduce loads. For example:

● Community planning can support building configurations that

minimize solar gain in summer and maximize in the winter

● Adjacent buildings can be designed to shade and insulate each

other

● Building designs that incorporate passive strategies, like daylight,

thermal mass, and natural ventilation, reduce the demand for

artificial lighting, heating and cooling

● Technologies and processes can be used to help occupants

understand their patterns of energy consumption and reduce both

individual and aggregate energy demand

Figure 6. Home performance with ENERGY STAR programs, October 2010.

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In addition to reducing demand, green building encourages sustainable

methods for meeting energy needs. This may be more applicable when

addressing a project’s use of refrigerants, substances used in cooling of

systems. Refrigerants were widely employed throughout the 20th century

for transferring thermal energy in air-conditioning and refrigeration

systems. Although these substances have remarkable functional

properties, they also have damaging side effects for the environment. In

the 1980’s, research emerged demonstrating that certain refrigerant for

buildings systems were depleting stratospheric ozone, a gas that protects

humans and the environment by absorbing harmful UV radiation, and

contributing to climate change. The Montreal Protocol subsequently

banned the production of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerant and is

phasing out hydro chlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerant, both organic

chemical compounds known to have ozone-depleting potential. To

achieve LEED certification, new buildings may not use CFC-based

refrigerant, and existing buildings must complete a total CFC phase-out

prior to project completion. LEED award points for projects that entirely

avoid the use of refrigerant or select refrigerants that balance concerns of

ozone depletion and climate change. LEED recognizes that although

there are no perfect refrigerants, it is possible to carefully consider

performance characteristics and environmental effects and select a

refrigerant with an acceptable trade-off.19

19 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

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Strategies for reducing energy demand in design and planning: ● Establish design and energy goals. Set targets and establish

performance indicators at the outset of a project and periodically

verify their achievements.

● Size the building appropriately. A facility that is larger than

necessary to serve its function creates costly and wasteful energy

demand.

● Use free energy. Orient the facility to benefit from natural

ventilation, solar energy and daylight.

● Insulate. Design the building envelope to insulate efficiently against

heating and cooling losses.

Strategies for reducing energy demand in operations and maintenance: ● Use free energy. Use the facility’s orientation and appropriate

shades, windows and vents to take advantage of natural

ventilation, solar energy, and daylight.

● Monitor consumption. Use energy monitoring and feedback

systems to encourage occupants to reduce energy demand. 20

Energy efficiency

Once demand reduction strategies have been addressed and

incorporated, the project team can begin to employ strategies to promote

energy efficiency, using less energy to accomplish the same amount of

work. Getting the most work per unit of energy is often described as a


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measure of energy intensity. Common metrics for buildings and

neighborhoods include energy use per square foot and use per capita.

Through the integrated process, green building project teams can identify

opportunities from employing synergistic strategies. For example, by

improving the building envelope, the space between interior and exterior

environments of a building, which typically includes windows, walls, and

roof, teams may be able to reduce the size of HVAC systems or even

eliminate them altogether. This kind of integrated design can reduce both

initial capital costs and long-term operating costs.

Strategies for achieving energy efficiency21

● Address the envelope. Use the regionally appropriate amount of

insulation in the walls and roof and install high-performance glazing

to minimize unwanted heat gain loss. Make sure that the building is

properly weatherized.

● Install high-performance mechanical systems and appliances.

Apply life cycle assessment to the trade-offs between capital and

operating costs, and evaluate investments in energy efficiency

technologies. Appliances that meet or exceed ENERGY STAR

requirements will reduce plug load demands.

● Use high-efficiency infrastructure. Efficient street lighting and LED

traffic signals will reduce energy demands from neighborhood

infrastructure.

● Capture efficiencies of scale. Design district heating and cooling

systems in which multiple buildings are part of a single loop.


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● Use energy simulation. Computer modeling can identify and

prioritize energy efficiency opportunities.

● Monitor and verify performance. Ensure that the building systems

are functioning as designed and support the owner’s project

requirements through control systems, a building automation

system, and commissioning and retro commissioning.22

Renewable energy

Reduced demand and increased efficiency often make it cost-effective to

meet most or all of building’s energy needs from renewable sources. So-

called green power is typically understood to include solar, wind, wave,

biomass, and geothermal power, plus certain forms of hydropower.

(Fig.7)

Figure 7. U.S. Energy Information Administration - Renewable electricity generation by fuel

type in the Annual Energy Outlook 2015 reference case, 2000-2040; in trillion kilowatts.


28

Use of these energy sources avoids the myriad of environmental impacts

associated with the production and consumption of nonrenewable fuels,

such as coal, nuclear power, oil, and natural gases.

LEED distinguishes between on-site renewable energy production and

purchase of off-site green power. On-site energy production typically

involves a system that generates clean electricity, such as solar

photovoltaic panels that convert the sun's energy into electricity. Off-site

renewable energy is typically purchased at a premium price per kilowatt-

hour from a utility or a provider of renewable energy certificates (RECs).

RECs represent a tradable non tangible commodity associated with the

qualities of renewable electricity generation. RECs, and their associated

attributes and benefits, can be sold separate from the underlying physical

electricity associated with the renewable-based generation source.

Strategies for meeting energy demand with renewable energy

● Generate on-site renewable energy. Install photovoltaic cells, solar

hot water heaters, or building-mounted wind turbines.

● Purchase off-site renewable energy. Buy green power or renewable

energy certificates to reduce the environmental impact of

purchased electricity and promote renewable energy generation.

Ongoing energy performance

Attention to energy use does not end with the design and construction of

an energy-efficient building. It is critical to ensure that the project

functions as designed and that it sustains and improves this performance

over time. Design flaws, construction defects, can undermine

performance goals, set during planning and design, equipment

29

malfunctions, and deferred maintenance. Monitoring and verification

provide the basis for tracking energy performance, with the goal of

identifying and resolving any problems that may arise. Monitoring often

involves comparing building performance measurements with predictions

from a calibrated energy simulation or industry benchmarking tool. EPA’s

ENERGY STAR Portfolio Manager is one of the most widely used

benchmarking systems. Users enter data on electricity and natural gas

consumption, along with other supporting information, into a Web-based

tool. The system then evaluates the performance of the building against

that of others with similar characteristics. This is an exceptionally useful,

free tool for gauging performance of buildings.

Commissioning is a systematic investigation by skilled professionals who

compare building performance with performance goals, design

specifications, and most importantly the owner’s requirements. This

process begins early in design, with the specification of requirements.

The requirements are considered throughout the building design and

construction process and become the baseline for evaluation. Ongoing

commissioning for building operations ensures that the building continues

to meet its fundamental operational requirements. Retro commissioning

is the same process applied to existing buildings, it is intended to keep a

building on track for meeting or exceeding the original operational goals.

The cost of consuming is often repaid with recovered energy

performance.

30

Strategies for incorporating ongoing performance measurements into a project 23

● Adhere to the owner’s project requirements. Prepare detailed

owner’s project requirements at the beginning of the design

process and conduct commissioning throughout the life cycle of the

project to ensure that the building functions as designed.

● Provide staff training. Knowledge and training empower facilities

managers to maintain and improve the performance of buildings.

● Create incentives for occupants and tenants. Involve building

occupants in energy efficiency strategies. Promote the use of

energy-efficient computers and equipment, bill tenants from

submeter readings to encourage energy conservation, educate

occupants about shutting down computers and turning out lights

before they leave, and give them regular feedback on energy

performance.

Material and resources

Materials and resources are the foundation of the buildings in which we

live and work, as well as that with which we fill them, the infrastructure

that carries people to and from these buildings, and the activities that

take place within them. The ubiquitous nature of materials and resources

makes it easy to overlook the history and costs associated with

production, transportation, consumption, and disposal. Setting goals for

using sustainable materials and resources is an important step of the

green building process. “Reduce, reuse, recycle” may seem like a critical

component of this work: clearly reducing consumption is critical, and 23 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

31

reusing and recycling waste are important strategies. But green building

requires rethinking the selection of materials as well. Ideally the materials

and resources used for buildings not only do less harm but go further and

regenerate the natural and social environments from which they

originate. To evaluate the best options and weigh the tradeoffs

associated with a selection, teams must think beyond a project’s physical

and temporal boundaries. Life cycle assessment can help a team make

informed, defensible decisions. (Fig.8)

Figure 8. United States Environmental Protection Agency -How waste management impacts

greenhouse gas emissions.

Plentiful opportunities exist to reduce the harms associated with

materials. Using less, finding materials with environmentally preferable

attributes, using locally harvested materials, and eliminating waste

provide a great starting place. A systems-based, life cycle perspective

and an integrative process will help projects achieve their goals

32

addressing materials and resource use. LEED addresses the following

issues related to materials and resources:

● Conservation of materials

● Environmentally preferable materials

● Waste management and reduction

Conservation of materials A building generates a large amount of waste throughout its life cycle.

Meaningful waste reduction begins with eliminating the need for materials

during the planning and design phase.

Strategies for conserving materials throughout a project’s life cycle24

● Reuse existing building and salvaged materials. Selecting

resources that have already been harvested and manufactured

results in material savings.

● Plan for smaller, more compact communities. Reduce the need for

new roads and other infrastructures by preventing sprawling land-

use patterns.

● Design smaller, more flexible homes and buildings. Use space-

efficient strategies, reduce unused space such as hallways, and

provide flexible spaces that can serve multiple functions.

● Use efficient framing techniques. Two framing approaches that by

design use less material than conventional framing without

compromising performance are advanced framing, in which studs 24 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam, Michelle Cottrell, 2011

33

are spaced 24 instead of 16 inches on center, and structural

insulated panels, which combine framing and insulation into one

rigid component.

● Promote source reduction in operations. Designate office supply

reuse centers or areas that make unused or reusable supplies

available for reuse. Encourage paper conservation through double-

sided and electronic printing.

Environmentally preferable materials25

Materials attributes can be the basis for calling a product green, and

these can occur in any phase of its life cycle. Commonly, products are

designated as environmentally preferable materials because they are:

● Locally harvested or extracted and manufactured

● Sustainably or organically grown and harvested

● Made from rapidly renewable materials, those that can naturally be

replenished in a short period of time (for LEED, within 10 years)

● Contain recycled content

● Made by biodegradable or compostable material

● Free of toxins

● long lasting, durable, and reusable

● Made in factories that support human health and workers rights

For consumers the biggest challenge is identifying what products are

truly green. As public interest in sustainability has grown, so has the

practice of greenwashing, or presenting misinformation to the consumer

25 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam - Michelle Cottrell, U.S. Green Building Council, 2011

34

to portray a product or policy as being more environmentally friendly than

it actually is.

Strategies to promote sustainable purchasing during design and operations 26

● Identify local sources of environmentally preferable products. Using

local materials not only reduces the environmental harms

associated with transportation, it also supports the local economy.

● Develop a sustainable materials policy. Outline the goals,

threshold, and producers for procurement of ongoing consumables

and durable goods. Incorporate systems thinking. Evaluate

materials based on their upstream and downstream consequences.

Monitor compliance to ensure that the policy is effective.

● Specify green materials and equipment. Give preference to rapidly

renewable materials, regional materials, salvaged materials, and

those with recycled content. Choose vendors who promote source

reduction through reusable or minimal packaging of products. Look

for third-party certifications, such as the Forest Stewardship

Council, Green Seal, and ENERGY STAR.

● Specify green custodial products. Choose sustainable cleaning

products and materials that meet Green Seal, Environmental

Choice, or EPA standards to protect indoor environmental quality

and reduce environmental damage.

26 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam - Michelle Cottrell, U.S. Green Building Council, 2011

35

Waste management Building construction generates large amounts of solid waste, and waste

is generated across the building life cycle as new products arrive and

used materials are discarded. This waste may be transported to landfills,

incinerated, recycled, or composted. (Fig.9) Solid waste disposal

contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through transportation

and, perhaps more significantly, the production of methane in landfills.

Incineration of waste produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct. EPA has

estimated greenhouse gas emission from building waste streams and

finds that the United States currently recycles approximately 32% of its

solid waste, the carbon dioxide equivalent of removing almost 40 million

cars from the road. improving recycling rates to just 35% could result in

savings equivalent to more than 5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide.

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Measuring Greenhouse Gas

Emissions from Waste (2010)). 27

Figure 9. United States Environmental Impact Agency - Municipal Solid Waste Generation in

the United States in 2012. 27 EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency, http://www2.epa.gov/greenerproducts

36

The intent of LEED credits in this category is to reduce the waste that is

hauled to and disposed of in landfills or incineration facilities. During

construction or renovation, materials should be recycled or reused

whenever possible. During the building’s daily operations, recycling,

reuse and reduction programs can curb the amount of material destined

for local landfills. 28

Strategies to reduce waste during construction29

● Develop a construction waste management policy. Outline

procedures and goals for construction waste diversion. This policy

should specify a target diversion rate for the general contractor.

● Establish a tracking system. Ensure that the general contractor

provides waste hauler reports and captures the full scope of the

waste produced. Designate a construction and demolition waste

recycling area. Diligent monitoring will ensure that the policy is

effective.

Strategies to reduce waste during operations and maintenance30

● Develop a solid waste management policy. Outline procedures and

goals for solid waste diversion. This policy should specify a target

diversion rate for the facility.

28 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam - Michelle Cottrell, U.S. Green Building Council, 2011 29 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam - Michelle Cottrell, U.S. Green Building Council, 2011 30 Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam - Michelle Cottrell, U.S. Green Building Council, 2011

37

● Conduct a waste stream audit. Establish baseline performance for

the facility and identify opportunities for increased recycling,

education, and waste diversion.

● Maintain a recycling program. Provide occupants with easily

accessible collectors for recyclables. Label all collectors and list

allowable materials. Through signage or meetings, educate

occupants about the importance of recycling and reducing waste.

● Monitor, track, and report. Use hauler reports or other reliable data

to monitor and track the effectiveness of the policy. Track

performance goals and provide feedback to the occupants.

● Compost. Institute an on-site composting program to turn

landscaping debris into mulch. Work with the waste hauler to allow

for collection and composting of food and other organic materials.

● Provide recycling for durable goods. Institute an annual durable

goods drive where e-waste and furniture are collected on site and

disposed of properly through donation, reuse, or recycling. Allow

occupants to bring e-waste and furniture from home.

6. LEED guide

6.1 Prerequisites, credits and credit weights

Above all the LEED categories (Fig. 10) , the ones taken into exam and

their corresponding standard prerequisites are:

38

- Energy & Atmosphere: Fundamental commissioning of building

energy systems, Minimum energy performance, fundamental

refrigerant management31

- Materials & Resources: Storage and collection of recyclables32

Figure 10. LEED certification score breakdown.

31 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 32 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

39

The components of prerequisites and credits are:

● Credit name and point value

● Intent - describes the main goal or benefit for each credit or

prerequisite

● Requirements - details the elements to fulfill the prerequisite or

credit. Some credits have a selection of options to choose from to

earn points.

● Benefits and issues to consider - discusses the triple bottom line

values to the credit or prerequisites

● Related credits - indicates the trade-offs and synergies of credits

and prerequisites.

● Reference standards - lists the standards referenced to establish

the requirements of the credit or prerequisites.

● Implementation - suggests strategies and technologies to comply

with the requirements of the credit or prerequisite

● Timeline and team - outlines which team member is typically

responsible for the credit and when the effort should be addressed

● Calculations - although most calculations are completed online, this

section describes the formulas to be used specific to the credit or

the prerequisite

● Documentation guidelines - describes the necessary

documentation requirements to be submitted electronically for

certification review

● Examples - demonstrates examples to satisfy requirements

● Exemplary performance - think of these as bonus points for

achieving the next incremental level of performance

40

● Regional variation - speaks to issues as related to project’s

geographic location

● Operations and maintenance considerations - describes relevance

of the credit or prerequisite after building is occupied, specific to the

EBOM rating system

● Resources - provides other tools or suggestions for more

information on the topic

● Definitions - provides clarification for general and unique terms

presented

Credit weight Since prerequisites are required, they are not worth any points. All

credits, however, are worth a minimum of one point. Credits are always

positive whole numbers, never fractures or negative values. All credits

and prerequisites are tallied on scorecards (Fig.11) (also referred to as

checklists) specific to each rating system. Any project seeking for

certification must earn a minimum of 40 points, but this does not mean 40

credits must be awarded as well, because different credits are weighted

differently and not worth only one point. To determine each credit’s

weight, USGBC referred to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s

13 Tools for the reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other

Environmental climate change, resource depletion, human health criteria,

and water intake.33


41

Figure 11. Example of LEED scorecard for New Constructions and Renovations.

Once the categories of impact were determined and prioritized, USGBC

referred to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for

their research to determine a value for each of the credits by comparing

each of the strategies to mitigate each of the impacts.

As a result of the credit weighting and carbon overplay exercise, LEED

values those strategies that reduce the impacts on climate change and

those with the greatest benefit for indoor environmental quality, focusing

on energy efficiency and carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction strategies. For

example transportation is a very important element within LEED, and

therefore any credits associated with getting to and from the project site

are weighted more. Water is an invaluable natural resource, and

42

therefore water efficiency and consumption reduction is weighted

appropriately to encourage project teams to design accordingly to use

fuels, and therefore is also suitably weighted.

6.2 Energy and Atmosphere

Using fossil fuels to generate electricity determines a great environmental

impact. Each step of the electricity production process harms the

environment and ecosystem in one way or another. The burning of coal

produces harmful pollutants and greenhouse gasses that contribute to

global warming and climate change, reducing air quality on a global

scale.

Conventionally designed and built facilities account for 39% of primary

energy use, 72% of electricity consumption, and 38% of carbon dioxide

(CO2) emissions, according to the US Green Building Council

(USGBC).34 Therefore, the LEED rating systems put the most emphasis

on the EA category by offering the largest opportunity to earn points, as

an attempt to reduce the electrical consumption and corresponding CO2

emissions of certified buildings. The EA category includes three

prerequisites to set the minimum performance requirements to be

achieved, thereby requiring any projects seeking certification to reduce

demand at a minimum level. Beginning with an understanding of the

requirements of these three prerequisites helps to comprehend the

concepts of the EA category. These prerequisites are as follows:

- Fundamental Commissioning of Building Energy Systems

- Minimum Energy Performance

34 The U.S. Green Building Council, http://www.usgbc.org/

43

- Fundamental Refrigerant Management

6.2.1. Minimum energy and performance

Perform minimum energy standard, reduce the amount of energy used.

LEED refers to ASHRAE standard 90.1-2007 (Fig.12) to determine the

minimum energy performance requirements for a building seeking LEED

certification. 35

An integrative design process is essential for the EA category, energy

performance, demands, and requirements are affected by multiple

components including:

- Site conditions, such as heat island reduction, can reduce energy

demand as equipment will not need to compensate for heat gain

from surrounding and adjacent areas. - Building orientation can affect the amount of energy needed for

artificial heating, cooling and lighting


44

Figure 12. ASHRAE Standard 90.1 – 2007 cover.

Finally, color schemes of interior spaces should also be considered when

designing lighting plans. Lightly colored walls, workstations, and other

interior design decisions to stretch the efficiencies of light even further to

possibly reduce the amount of required fixtures or lamps. The Green

Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide describes the following nine

strategies to use energy more efficiently:

1. Identify passive design opportunities. Take advantage of earth-

supplied elements such as daylighting (ex. appropriate shading and

45

with light shelves and window glazing) and natural ventilation. Be

mindful of orientation, building materials, and building envelope

elements, such as window placement.36

2. Address the envelope. Remember to incorporate high-

performance glazing to avoid unwanted heat gain or loss, properly

insulate the exterior walls and roof, and weatherize the building.

(ex. selecting insulated concrete forms (ICFs) as building envelope

materials increase the energy performance of a building)37

3. Install high-performance mechanical systems. Determine the

trade-offs of the up-front costs versus the operating costs by

conducting a life-cycle cost analysis. (ex. incorporating cooling

towers can help remove process waste heat by the means of water

evaporation, utilizing a heat exchange system can help to reduce

energy demands and save an owner operating costs)38 4. Specify high-efficiency equipment and appliances. Think

ENERGY STAR for office equipment and appliances to reduce

plug-load demands (ex. ENERGY STAR hot water heaters ensure

efficiency).39 5. Use high-efficient infrastructure for street lighting and traffic

signals. Think about the consistent and long-term use of these

fixtures to understand the value of longer life and cost savings from

less energy required for operation. ( installing light-emitting diode

(LED) can help decrease the energy demand for neighborhoods)

36 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 37 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 38 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 39 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

46

6. Capture efficiencies of scale. Think about large universities or

corporate campuses that use district systems to thermally condition

multiple buildings on a single loop. 7. Use thermal energy storage. Refuse heat at night to provide

cooling during the day in the summer and capture heat during the

day to use at night in the winter. 40 8. Use energy simulation. Model the whole building with regulated

energy uses to optimize synergies (Energy modeling tools, such as

eQUEST, assist project teams to determine energy

consumptions).41 9. Monitor and verify performance. Commissioning, implementing

building automation systems, and retro-commissioning all help to

ensure energy efficiency.42

6.2.2. Renewable energy

Keeping with the same goals previously discussed, implementing

renewable energy technologies into a green building project can reduce

the need to produce and consume coal, nuclear power, oil and natural

gases for energy, therefore reducing pollutants and emissions, as well as

increasing air quality. For the purposes of LEED, eligible renewable

energy sources include solar, wind, wave, biomass, geothermal power

and low-impact hydropower. The Green Building and LEED Core

Concepts Guide describes the following two strategies to incorporate

renewable energy and reduce the use of fossil fuels: 40 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 41 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 42 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011.

47

1. Generate on-site renewable energy. Clean electricity must be

generated on site by photovoltaic panels, wind turbines,

geothermal, biomass, or low-impact hydropower. Think solar water

heaters. 43 2. Purchase green power or renewable energy credits (RECs).

Generated off site and not associated with supplying power to a

specific project site seeking LEED certification. Think tradable

commodities.44

6.2.3. Ongoing energy performance

The benefits of commissioning new buildings and retro-commissioning

existing buildings include monitoring building system demands during

operations. Tracking the performance of a green building ensures that

the building operates as it was designed and intended. The Green

Building and LEED Core Concepts Guide describes the following four

strategies to ensure optimal performance:

1. Adhere to the OPR. Remember, this is the first part of the

commissioning process that takes place as early as possible in the

design process. This helps to communicate the environmental

goals of the project to the design team, to be incorporated into the

drawings and specifications.45

2. Provide staff training. The building occupants should be aware of

how to use less energy, such as turning off lights and computers

after hours. Operations & maintenance staff should also be aware


48

how to operate their facility and the way it was designed to

function.46

3. Conduct preventive maintenance. It typically costs less to be

proactive than reactive. Scheduled maintenance keeps the building

and its systems operating efficiently.47

4. Create incentives for occupants and tenants. Provide feedback

to occupants on energy usage to achieve and exceed the project’s

goals.48

6.3. Materials and Resources

How to properly select materials and what to do with them after their

useful life, two critical elements for the environment and the building

industry, as buildings are a large consumer of natural resources. More

specifically a sustainability guide by San Mateo County suggests

“construction in the United States consumes 25% of all wood that is

harvested, 40% of all raw stone, gravel and sand.” As a result, green

building project team members are advised to evaluate the

environmental impact of their materials and product specifications.

Project teams may then find themselves asking, “Where does the steel

come from? What kind of materials are used to make green building

products? How far is the manufacturing plant from the project site? What

happens to the leftover gypsum wallboard scraps?” To help answer these

questions we need to address two components for consideration as

related to material and resource selection and disposal:


49

1. The life-cycle impacts of building materials

2. Waste management during construction and operation

6.3.1. Conducting life-cycle assessment of building materials to determine selection

Implementing sustainable buildings materials impact a project’s triple

bottom line, just as with site selection and energy and water demands.

Project teams should perform life-cycle assessments (LCAs) of building

materials, prior to specification, to evaluate the “cradle-to-grave” cycle of

each material, especially as related to the environmental components of

the pollution and the demand of natural resources. The cradle-to-grave

cycle includes the extraction location of raw materials, the manufacturing

process and location, the impact on construction workers and building

occupants, the expectancy term of impact on construction workers and

building occupants, the expectancy term of use during operations, and

the disposal options available. With the evaluation of these components,

the results of an LCA will help to determine the material selections to

include in the construction purchasing policy to help guide the contractor.

Although it may not be feasible to conduct a full LCA for every product,

project teams can refer to the LEED reference guides for material

selection assistance.49 The LEED rating systems suggest for project

teams to implement products with one or more of the following

characteristics, listed as follows:

- Materials with recycled content - avoid landfills and incineration,

reduces the need for virgin raw materials. (Ex. masonry, concrete,

49 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/lci/

50

carpet, acoustic ceiling tile,tile, rubber flooring, insulation and

gypsum wallboard)50

- Local/regional materials - reduces transportation impacts,

preserves local economy. Materials that are obtained within 500

miles of the project site. (permeable pavers made with recycled

materials help recharge groundwater and reduce use of virgin

materials)51

- Rapidly renewable materials - preserves natural resource

materials for future generations, can replace petroleum-based

products. (Ex. Animal or fiber materials that grow or can be raised

in less than 10 years. Bamboo flooring, and plywood, cotton batt

insulation, linoleum flooring, sunflower seed board panels,

wheatboard cabinetry, wool carpeting, cork flooring, bio-based

paints, geotextile fabrics, soy-based insulation and straw bales)

- Certified wood materials - preserves materials for future

generations and habitats and maintains biodiversity 52. (Fig.13)

Figure 13. Major labels that sell certified wood.

50 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/lci/ 51 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/lci/ 52 National Renewable Energy Laboratory, http://www.nrel.gov/lci/

51

Calculating Green Building Products for LEED

The LEED rating systems award points to projects that surpass the

minimum thresholds of green product purchasing and therefore the

products are required to be tracked, measured and calculated to prove

compliance. Materials with recycled content, regional materials, salvaged

materials, and rapidly renewable animal or fiber products are calculated

as percentage of the total material cost for a project. FSC wood products

are calculated as a percentage of the total cost of new wood products

purchased for a specific project. After construction, materials are then

documented and tallied to show compliance to earn points. For example,

should a project purchase 60% of their wood products from a sustainably

managed forest, they would earn one point, as the minimum threshold is

to purchase at least 50% FSC certified wood of total wood purchased. If

only portions of assembled products or materials can contribute to

earning the credit, those portions are calculated as a percentage of

weight of the cost of the assembled item. For example, if only 80% (by

weight) of a carpet system has recycled content, only 80% of the material

cost can contribute toward earning the Recycled Content credit.53

6.3.2. Building materials life-cycle impacts

The LEED rating systems not only help to define the parameters of green

building products, but also help to identify environmentally responsible

procurement strategies during both construction and operations, as the

first strategy to reduce the life-cycle impact of the products used at a

project site. As previously mentioned, architects need to specify materials


52

appropriately to provide contractors the guidelines for the types of

building material they should purchase and use during construction.

During operations, building owners and facility managers should address

the products they are purchasing by also implementing sustainable

procurement policies. As the LEED for Existing Buildings: Operations and

Maintenance (EBOM) rating system dictates, these policies can address

the goals and thresholds for purchasing ongoing consumables, such as

lamp types, food, cleaning products, and paper products; and durable

goods such as electronics and furniture.

Although LEED EBOM is the only rating system that includes a

sustainable purchasing policy prerequisite, each of the rating systems

offer other opportunities to earn points for projects that implement similar

policies. In addition to sustainable purchasing, projects can also

implement the following strategies to reduce the impacts of materials and

products on the environment:

1. Specify green materials. Ex. sustainable procurement choices,

such as cradle-to-cradle (C2C) certified task chairs composed of

recycled content, specifying C2C certified surfaces made of

recycled content with low to no volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 2. Specify green interiors. Keep VOCs to a minimum. Ex. install CRI

Green Label Plus Program carpet tiles to avoid the contamination

of the indoor air, specifying low-VOC paint. 3. Specify green electronic equipment. ENERGY STAR equipment

and appliances from the EA category. BEES (Building for

Environmental and Economical Sustainability:

www.wbdg.org/tools/bees.php), the construction carbon calculator,

ECOCalculator for assemblies, and EPEAT (Electronic Product

53

Environmental Assesment Tool: www.epeat.net) offer LCAs to help

select equipment that use energy efficiently, are made with

recyclable and recycled materials, and tend to require less

maintenance and are upgradable.54

6.3.3. Waste management

Construction processes and building operations should be addressed to

minimize environmental impacts from disposal and waste. (Fig. 14) In the

United States, building construction and demolition alone account for

40% of the total waste stream, while building operations account for 300

tons of waste per year for a building with 1500 employees. When waste

is collected and hauled form a construction site or an existing facility, it is

typically brought to a landfill or an incineration facility, both of which

contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Landfills produce and then leak

methane and incineration facilities processes produce carbon dioxide. As

another environmental detriment, think about the potential of landfills to

contaminate groundwater sources. As a result, green building project

teams and facility managers are encouraged to address waste diversion

strategies for new and existing buildings to avoid landfills and incineration

facilities. The EPA estimates a reduction of 5 million metric tons of

carbon dioxide, if recycling efforts were to increase just 3% above the

current 32% rate. To help reach this goal, the LEED rating systems offer

point opportunities or implementing waste management policies during

construction, to divert waste by reuse and recycling strategies.

54 Energy Star Government, https://www.energystar.gov/

54

Figure 14. Hierarchy of sustainable waste management.

Construction waste management plans should address whether waste

will be separated on-site into individuality labeled waste containers or

collected in a commingled fashion in one container and sorted off-site. As

with many of the components addressed within the LEED rating systems,

there are trade-offs to address when deciding between the two options.

Commingled collection reduces the amount of space needed on-site,

while on-site collection may require additional labor to manage the

sorting effort. In either case, land cleaning debris and soil should not be

included in the calculations, but metals, concrete and asphalts should all

be collected for recycling and accounted for. Recycling options for paper,

cardboard, plastics and wood varies by region. Each of the rating

systems includes a prerequisite to address waste management policies

during operations for the collection and storage of recyclables. At a

minimum, LEED projects must recycle paper, corrugated cardboard,

55

glass, plastics and metals.55 LEED EBOM offers point opportunities for

auditing waste streams and implementing waste management policies for

ongoing consumables (such as soap, batteries and paper goods) and

durable goods (such as furniture and electronics).

Strategies to reduce waste56

1. Size the building appropriately. Smaller buildings use less

energy and have lower operations costs. 2. Develop a construction waste management policy. Goals

addressed as a 50% diversion could earn a point by reducing,

reusing or recycling. 3. Encourage recycling. The storage and collection of recyclables is

required for projects seeking LEED certification. 4. Reuse or salvage building materials. Extends useful life of

products and reduces the need for raw materials. Also can save

money as opposed to buying new. 5. Reuse existing buildings instead of tearing down building

new. 6. Compost. Use landscaping and food debris as muc. 7. Consider new technology, design and construction decision.

Consider finishing concrete floor to avoid the need for a floor finish

such as carpet or ceramic tile, or consider specifying carpet tiles in

lieu of roll goods to minimize the amount needed for replacement

should an area get damaged.


56

7. Case Study: Peter Kiewit Institute - University of Omaha Nebraska

7.1 Project overview

The Peter Kiewit Institute is a facility in Omaha, Nebraska that houses

academic programs from both the University of Nebraska-Lincoln's

College of Engineering and the University of Nebraska at Omaha's

College of Information Science and Technology.

Designed and built in 1996 in partnership with the University of

Nebraska–Lincoln, the University of Nebraska at Omaha, and companies

in the private sector.57

The building was conceived in order to leave open further changes and

additions to the original project. The expansion project arises from

important shortcomings and requirements needed more than ever

needed by the increasing numbers of faculty members, staff and

students.

The Institute building was master planned to expand to the south west,

connecting the 2 wings of the existing building that then closes the loop

for a more fluid circulation pattern. This enhances flexibility and

integration of the 2 colleges occupying the building by eliminating any

dead ends. The connection points at the ends, the center enclosure

created by the loop, and the potential new indoor outdoor views can

augment visual evidence to the visitor and the user that this is a high

57 Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kiewit_Institute

57

performance environment of innovative research that leverages the

collaborative opportunities between the 2 colleges. To meet the projected

space needs; the buildable area on the site results in a three story

addition. The new spaces are to be designed for adaptability and

flexibility for future research and learning concepts. It should also

incorporate innovative processes for taking the “pulse” of the built

environment to test and monitor effects on building systems and the

human experience. Special attention is necessary to develop social and

collaborative spaces for students and faculty, a vibrant and active place

encouraging students to stay.

The position of the addition builds on a stepping up form, starting with the

existing 1st story offices, to the 2nd story labs and then to the new 3rd

story addition. This is in compliance with the Aksarben Village

development of intentionally scaling up the buildings from low to high

masses along main access ways such as Center Street and Pacific

Street. The expansion can be phased to address needs as they develop.

Containing equal portions of science and nature the building should

make use of rock, water, and natural sunlight, as well as the latest in high

tech infrastructure and amenities.

7.1.1. Request of proposal objectives58

As specified in the RFP (Request of Proposal) the objectives to be

identified will have to be:

58 Request of Proposal for Peter Kiewit Institute expansion, University of Nebraska Omaha, 2014

58

● Building as a Lab – Continuing with the concept of the original

building this will allow:

○ Students to view various building systems

○ Gathering/documentation of data

○ Monitoring of building data for diagnostic and research

purposes

○ Managed manipulation of building systems equipment and

controls

● Support Education with Student focus:

○ Improve Student services – advising and tutoring

○ Provide small group/collaboration spaces Support team

projects

○ Support Capstone Program

○ Provide large classrooms to support large group learning

environments

○ Provide privacy spaces for mentoring and advising

● Increase dedicated research space:

○ Increase per faculty projection in each respective college

○ Flexible /adaptable space

○ All dry lab space (power and data)

○ Modular planning

● Improve Community Outreach:

○ Provide space to support summer camps, seminars, and

workshops

○ Provide large classroom/auditorium space

○ Provide space to support increased STEM activities

59

● Promote Innovation and Entrepreneurship:

○ Create a culture and supportive environment

○ Identify, stimulate and reward creativity ● Promote Integration:

○ Create an environment that promotes and supports

collaborative activities between colleges

○ Allow and promote integration of faculty office assignments to

promote and support collaboration ● Provide Natural Lighting:

○ Allow for as much natural lighting as reasonably possible to

support the teaching, learning, collaboration and research

environment as possible ● Provide Secondary Pacific Street Campus Student Center and

Library Services:

○ Provide facilities to support students that spend most, if not

all their time on the Pacific Street Campus

○ Support PKI, Mammel Hall, Residence Halls and future

growth of Pacific Street Campus ● Improve/Enhance Overall Facility:

○ Provide flexibility to support the breaking down of “silos”

○ Provide flexibility/adaptability

○ Promote collaboration/teamwork

● New Building to be LEED Certified:

60

○ Identify and implement logical cost effective sustainable

opportunities

○ Support “Building as a Lab” concept

○ Support the CoE and IS&T academic programs

7.1.2. Facility requirements

Code Use

Quantity

Existing SF

5 Year

projection

100 Classroom Facilities 10,758 9025

110 Classroom 160�250 seats 110 Classroom & Seminar Rooms

24-100 seats 115 Classroom Service

1 5

58,669

1 3

6,250 2,475 300

20,150

200 Laboratory Facilities

210 Class Laboratory C.O.E. 210 Class Laboratory I.S.T. 215 Class Laboratory Service

Special Class Laboratory C.O.E.

500

220 Special Class Laboratory I.S.T. 220 Special Class Laboratory

Capstone

225 Special Class Laboratory Service 150

230 Individual Study Laboratory

C.O.E. 230 Individual Study Laboratory I.S.T.

61

235 Individual Study Laboratory

Service 250 Research Laboratory C.O.E.

43 (80)

15

10,500

250 Research Laboratory I.S.T. 46 (74) 10 7,000

255 Research Laboratory Service 2,000

36,103

24100

300 Office Facilities

310 Office Facilities C.O.E. 43 (80) 20 24,00

310 Office Facilities I.S.T. 46 (74) 15 18,00

310 Office Facilities Grad. Assist.

C.O.E.

130 (400)

135

8,100

310 Office Facilities Grad. Assist.

I.S.T.

359 (667)

175

10,500

315 Office Service 400

350 Conference Room 900

355 Conference Room

Service

Code Use

Quantity

Existing SF

5 Year projection

6,015

7550 400 Study Facilities

62

Reading/Study/Reference/Ro

om (Small Group Study 410

(10 @ 6�8 chairs))

7

1,540

410

Reading/Study/Reference/Room

(Study Cabins)

4 160

410 Reading/Study/Reference/Room

(Video/ Maker) 1 500

430 Open Reading Room (Landing and

Gathering with Café/Snack)

70

2,100

430 Open Reading Room (Booths and

Tables) 50 1,500

440 Library Support Space (Check out

equip., schedule study rooms)

1

150

455 Study Service (Student use

Display) 400

650 Lounge

2

800

655 lounge Service 680 Meeting Room

2

400

685 meeting Room Service

6,015

3,990

600 General Use Facilities

610 Assembly Multi�

Purpose Center for Collaboration 3,000

615 Assembly Service 330

Exhibition �

Entrepreneurship, Multi�

Discipline 620 Innovations

660

63

625 exhibition Service 650 Lounge� Distributed

Library annex 655 lounge Service 680 Meeting Room 685 meeting Room Service

4,349

1,500

700 Support Facilities

Total Net Area Total Gross Area

121,909 192,380

66315 100,000

7.2. Site survey

The University of Nebraska Omaha is located in midtown Omaha, with a

campus separated in two by Elmwood Park. The campus north of

Elmwood is referred to as 'North Campus' and the campus south of

Elmwood as 'South Campus'. The North Campus is the largest and

primary campus for the University of Nebraska Omaha. The college's

facilities located in this part of campus are the College of Arts and

Sciences; College of Communication, Fine Arts, and Media; College of

Education; College of Public Affairs and Community Service; Graduate

Studies; International Studies; Service-Learning Academy. Additionally,

the North Campus is also the home to the Dr. C.C. and Mabel L. Criss

Library, the Strauss Performing Arts Center, the UNO Art Gallery, and

the Black Box Theater, a state-of-the-art facility with mobile seating units

that allow a customizable and transformative space.

On North Campus are also located part of the dorms buildings such as

University Village and Maverick Village student housing complexes, each

64

composed of multiple buildings, are spread across the western edge of

the North Campus, and additional housing is present on South Campus.

The HPER (Health, Physical Education, and Recreation) building is a

recently renovated complex that houses the Athletic Department for the

Division I Omaha Mavericks as well as student fitness areas. Attached is

the Sapp Field House and Al F. Caniglia Field. The Pep Bowl is located

near Caniglia Field.

The Pacific Campus (formerly South Campus) houses the primary

facilities for the College of Business Administration and the College of

Information Science and Technology, which includes the Peter Kiewit

Institute, the Charles W. Durham School of Architectural Engineering,

and the Firefly supercomputer. The Scott Technology Center incubator,

which aims to assist start-up enterprises, is also located on the Pacific

Campus. The Scott Data Center and Scott Conference Center are other

features of Pacific Campus. A complex of new dorms is also present on

South Campus, Scott Village, and on November 2015 the southern area

of the Pacific Campus boosted its area of students attendance with the

hockey Baxter Arena. The Entire Campus cover an area of 534 acres

(216 ha) of which 78 acres (32 ha) are North Campus and 154 acres (62

ha) South Campus. (Fig. 15)

65

Figure 15. University of Nebraska Omaha Campus, Google Maps, 2016.

The PKI building is placed at a central spot, between the two campuses.

It is surrounded by two main streets at north and east, which are Pacific

St. and 67th St. .These roads have the most intense and high traffic flow,

as they are roads of connection between the two campuses, and used by

students, citizens of the neighboring areas and several shuttle lines

provided by the University. As for the south and west, the building is

surrounded by green areas and parking lots at service for the PKI

institute and Mammel Hall - College of building and administration. (Fig.

16, Fig.17, Fig. 18)

66

Figure 16. Peter Kiewit Institute and designated area for the extension building, Request for

Proposal document, 2015.

Figure 17. Peter Kiewit Institute Front View, Google Maps, 2016.

67

Figure 18. Solar path around Peter Kiewit Institute, Google Maps, 2015

7.3. Materials and resource selection

The main intent when selecting materials and resources is to extend the

lifecycle of existing building stock, conserve resources, retain cultural

resources, reduce waste and reduce environmental impacts of new

buildings as they relate to materials manufacturing and transport.

LEED guide specifies that by maintain the existing building structure

(including structural floor and roof decking) and envelope (the exterior

skin and framing, excluding window assemblies and non-structural

roofing material), credit score is achieved. For this reason, it was chosen

to keep the exterior walls of the existing PKI building and add the new

extension structure on the south-west area.

68

During the construction of the new building it will be necessary to recycle

and salvage nonhazardous construction and demolition debris. Develop

and implement a construction waste management plan that, at a

minimum, identifies the materials to be diverted from disposal and

whether the materials will be sorted on-site or comingled. Excavated soil

and land-clearing debris do not contribute to this credit. Calculations can

be done by weight or volume, but must be consistent throughout.

It will be necessary to establish goals for diversion from

disposal in landfills and incineration facilities and adopt a construction

waste management plan to achieve these goals. Consider recycling

cardboard, metal, brick, mineral fiber panel, concrete, plastic, clean

wood, glass, gypsum wallboard, carpet and insulation. Construction

debris processed into a recycled content commodity that has an open

market value may be applied to the construction waste calculation. A

specific area will be designated on the construction site for segregated or

comingled collection of recyclable materials, and track recycling efforts

throughout the construction process. Identify construction haulers and

recyclers to handle the designated materials. Note that diversion may

include donation of materials to charitable organizations and salvage of

materials on-site.

Some of these materials will be reused on the realization of the new

building, such as bricks, wood, steel.

The materials applied on the new building will incorporate recycled

content materials, thereby reducing impacts resulting from extraction and

processing of virgin materials for at least the maximum percentage

materials recycled for each point threshold, such as 20% for 2 points.

69

All materials and products that are extracted and manufactured within the

region, thereby supporting the use of indigenous resources and reducing

the environmental impacts resulting from transportation within 500 miles

(800 kilometers) radius of the site.59 (Fig.19)

Figure 19. Radius of site for material selection, Google Maps, 2016

All wood-based materials and products must be certified in accordance

with the Forest Stewardship Council’s principles and criteria, for wood

building components and the minimum use will be of 50% (based on

cost). These components include at a minimum, structural framing and

general dimensional framing, flooring, sub-flooring, wood doors and

finishes. 60 Defined these basic guidelines and taking into consideration

the orientation of the building, in anticipation of the subsequent energy

analysis, only the building envelope will be taken into analysis, as

59 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011. 60 Green Building and LEED core concepts - U.S. Green Building Council, 2011

70

primary mean of energy dispersion. The wall types and insulation levels

are varied as a function of orientation and exposure. (Fig.20, Fig.21)

Figure 20. South Wall, Revit, 2015

1. South walls: a. drywall / plaster / concrete b. vapor barrier c. 2x8 stud walls with sprayed insulation ( cellulose /

cementitious foam insulation) d. ½” exterior wall sheathing (fiberboard, 85% recycled

material) e. air barrier f. air space with vertical furring strip g. 1x brick / concrete

Figure 21. West Wall, Revit, 2015

2. West wall: a. drywall / plaster / concrete b. vapor barrier c. 1 ½” rigid insulation ( polyisocyanurate (polyiso), expanded

polystyrene (EPS) d. 2x8 stud walls with sprayed insulation ( cellulose /

cementitious foam insulation) e. ½” exterior wall sheathing (fiberboard, 85% recycled material) f. air barrier g. air space with vertical furring strip h. brick / concrete

71

While brick and concrete may appear as materials which aren’t strictly

“green” the choice to apply them was made taking into consideration their

durability. These materials have both high levels of embodied energy

from high temperature firing required to manufacture them, but their

overall life cycle analysis is good because of their lasting quality with little

maintenance. Both of them are also available with recycled content.

Floors will be in structural polished concrete, eliminating work and

materials required for an applied surface.

All windows are in double glazing with low E film. Below is the

represented the Revit model.

7.4. Autodesk Revit energy simulation

Energy simulation helps analyzing the movement of energy in, out, and

through the rooms and volumes in a building model. This information can

help designers make better informed, cost-effective decisions that

improve the performance and reduce the environmental impact of

buildings.

Whole building energy simulation measures expected energy use (fuel

and electricity) based on the building's geometry, climate, building type,

envelope properties, and active systems (HVAC & Lighting). It takes into

account the interdependencies of the building as a whole system.

Energy Analysis for Autodesk Revit was used to perform the whole

building energy simulation on the PKI project. This add-in connects the

design power of Revit to the analysis power of Autodesk Green Building

Studio.

72

Green Building Studio is Autodesk's core whole building energy

simulation engine. This flexible cloud-based service uses the DOE2

simulation engine. It allows to run building performance simulations to

optimize energy efficiency and to work toward carbon neutrality earlier in

the design process. Green Building Studio helps extend the ability to

design high performance buildings at a fraction of the time and cost of

conventional methods.

At first a Revit architecture model was first created, secondly the

simulation was performed.

The fastest and most reliable form of simulation is based building

elements such as walls, windows, doors, roofs, curtain panels, ceilings

and all the basic elements that bound space.61

The basic steps followed for the energy simulation were data settings

such as: the application of location and climate data (city or latitude and

longitude of building), building and space type (residential, school, office,

etc..), materials and systems and operation. Once all these parameters

are defined the energy simulation can be run. The defined information is

sent to Green Building Studio server which as result establish overall

energy use and cost and potential energy savings through various kind of

graphics.

Analysis of the results permits to apply proper changes to the model, by

resetting and modifying the data and parameters for a proper

improvement of the building.

The simulation results are illustrated in the graphics below. (Fig.22-32)

61 Autodesk, http://www.autodesk.com/education/home

73

Figure 22. Revit Energy Analysis results, Autodesk Revit, 2016.

74

Figure 23. Revit Energy Analysis results, Autodesk Revit, 2016.

75

Figure 24. Revit Energy Analysis results, Autodesk Revit, 2016

76


77


78


79


80


81


82


83


84

7.5. Heating system selection

As type of HVAC system it was hypothesized the use of ductless mini-

splits. Ductless mini-split systems are easier to install than some other

types of space conditioning systems. For example, the hook-up between

the outdoor and indoor units generally requires only a three-inch hole

through a wall for the conduit. Most manufacturers of this type of system

can provide a variety of lengths of connecting conduits, and, if necessary,

you can locate the outdoor unit as far away as 50 feet from the indoor

evaporator. This makes it possible to cool rooms on the front side of a

house, but locate the compressor in a more advantageous or

inconspicuous place on the outside of the building.

Mini splits have no ducts, so they avoid the energy losses associated

with the ductwork of central forced air systems. Duct losses can account

for more than 30% of energy consumption for space conditioning. In

comparison to other add-on systems, mini splits offer more interior

design flexibility. The indoor air handlers can be suspended from a

ceiling, mounted flush into a drop ceiling, or hung on a wall. Floor-

standing models are also available. Most indoor units are about seven

inches deep and have sleek, high tech-looking jackets. Many also offer a

remote control to make it easier to turn the system on and off when it's

positioned high on a wall or suspended from a ceiling. On the other hand

it does not allow for location of registers for even HVAC distribution and

provides limited air filtration. It may be powered by on-site renewable

electrical generation, in this case solar panels positioned on the roof of

the lecture hall, and fuels. Like conventional air-source heat pumps,

ductless mini-splits move heat from one place to another. In winter, they

85

extract heat from outdoor air and move it inside. In summer, the process

is reversed. The same equipment provides both heating and cooling. But

unlike conventional equipment, these systems do not need a central

network of ducts, simplifying installation and improving efficiency.62

Other advantages include small size and flexibility for zoning or heating

and cooling individual rooms. Many models can have as many as four

indoor air-handling units (for four zones or rooms) connected to one

outdoor unit. The number depends on how much heating or cooling is

required for the building or each zone (which in turn is affected by how

well the building is insulated and air sealed). Each of the zones has its

own thermostat. This will save energy and money. The cost of installing

mini splits can be higher than some systems, although lower operating

costs and rebates or other financial incentives, can help offset the initial

expense. The installer must correctly size each indoor unit and determine

the best location for its installation. Oversized or incorrectly located air

handlers can result in short cycling, which wastes energy and does not

provide proper temperature or humidity control. Too large a system is

more expensive to buy and operate. In addition solar panels are placed

on the south slope of the lecture hall roof to integrate the HVAC system

with solar power, without any changes to the building electrical

infrastructure. The site will have no shade on the panels, especially

during the prime sunlight hours of 9 a.m. to 3 p.m.; and its south-facing

installation will provide the optimum potential for the system. No trees will

cause shading during the day, so there won’t be any decrease to power

62 United States Department of Energy, http://energy.gov/energysaver/ductless-mini-split-heat-pumps

86

production. In a solar panel, if even just one of its 36 cells is shaded,

power production will be reduced by more than half. Non-tracking PV

systems should be inclined at an angle equal to the site’s latitude to

absorb the maximum amount of energy year-round.

The solar modules are connected directly to a rooftop unit, so electricity

generated from the modules can power the unit and other equipment or

appliances in the building. The power can also be sent back to the

electricity grid, enabling the building owner to receive credit for unused

power. The unit and solar panels system can also help the building

reduce its dependence on the power grid during peak load times, which

can help reduce demand charges that are incurred year round.

7.6. LEED rating assessment

After hypothesizing materials and resources, analyzing energy and

atmosphere with the energy simulation, we can now take into exam the

LEED rating assessment, that is defining how many credits for each of

the two categories taking into consideration are applicable to the project.

7.6.1. Materials & Resource

● MR prerequisite 1: Storage and Collection of recyclables, required:

Provide an easily-accessible dedicated area or areas for the

collection and storage of materials for recycling for the entire

building. Materials must include, at a minimum: paper, corrugated

cardboard, glass, plastics and metals. 63


87

● MR Credit 1.1: Building reuse—Maintain existing walls, floors and

roof:

3/3 points (95% of building reuse)64

● MR Credit 1.2: Building reuse—Maintain interior nonstructural

elements: 1/1 points (Use existing interior nonstructural elements

;interior walls, doors, floor coverings and ceiling systems; in at least

50% (by area) of the completed building, including additions.)65

● MR Credit 2: Construction waste Management: 2/2 points (75%

recycled and/or salvage nonhazardous construction and demolition

debris)66

● MR Credit 3: Materials reuse: 2/2 points (10% use of salvaged,

refurbished or reused materials, based on cost of total value of

materials on the project)67

● MR Credit 4: Recycled Content: 2/2 points ( 20% of the use of

materials with recycled content such that the sum of postconsumer

recycled content plus 1/2 of the pre consumer content, based on

cost of total value of materials on the project)68

● MR Credit 5: Regional Materials: 2/2 points (20%of the building

materials or products shipped by rail or water have been extracted,

64 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 65 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 66 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 67 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 68 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

88

harvested or recovered, as well as manufactured within a 500 mile

(800 kilometer))69

● MR Credit 6: rapidly renewable Materials: 0/1 points (Use rapidly

renewable building materials and products for 2.5% of the total

value of all building materials and products used in the project,

based on cost. Rapidly renewable building materials and products

are made from agricultural products that are typically harvested

within a 10-year or shorter cycle.)70

● MR Credit 7: Certified wood: 1/1 points (Use a minimum of 50%

(based on cost) of wood-based materials and products that are

certified in accordance with the Forest Stewardship Council’s

principles and criteria, for wood building components. These

components include at a minimum, structural framing and general

dimensional framing, flooring, sub-flooring, wood doors and

finishes.)71

Total Materials & Resources points acquired: 13/14

7.6.2. Energy & Atmosphere

● EA prerequisite 1: fundamental Commissioning of Building energy

Systems, required: To verify that the project’s energy-related

systems are installed, and calibrated to perform according to the

69 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 70 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 71 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

89

owner’s project requirements, basis of design and construction

documents. Benefits of commissioning include reduced energy use,

lower operating costs, fewer contractor callbacks, better building

documentation, improved occupant productivity and verification that

the systems perform in accordance with the owner’s project

requirements.72

● EA prerequisite 2: Minimum Energy Performance, required: To

establish the minimum level of energy efficiency for the proposed

building and systems to reduce environmental and economic

impacts associated with excessive energy use. Choice of 3

operational methods. In this case the method used was Option1.

Whole Building Energy simulation: Demonstrate a 10%

improvement in the proposed building performance rating for new

buildings, compared with the baseline building performance

rating.Calculate the baseline building performance rating according

to the building performance rating method in Appendix G of

ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2007 (with errata but without

addenda) using a computer simulation model for the whole building

project. Appendix G of Standard 90.1-2007 requires that the energy

analysis done for the building performance rating method include

all energy costs associated with the building project. For the

purpose of this analysis, process energy is considered to include.73


90

● EA prerequisite 3: Fundamental Refrigerant Management, required:

Zero use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)-based refrigerants in new

base building heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration

(HVAC&R) systems. When reusing existing base building HVAC

equipment, complete a comprehensive CFC phase-out conversion

prior to project completion. Phase-out plans extending beyond the

project completion date will be considered on their merits.74

● EA Credit 1: optimize energy performance:0/19 points from 12% to 48% improvement 75

● EA Credit 2: On-site Renewable Energy: 0/7 points 76

● EA Credit 3: Enhanced Commissioning: 2/2 points (Begin the

commissioning design, submittal and manual review process early

in the design process and execute additional activities after

systems performance verification is completed.)77

● EA Credit 4: Enhanced Refrigerant Management: 2/2 points (Reduce ozone depletion and support early compliance with

the Montreal Protocol while minimizing direct contributions to

climate change. 78

74 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 75 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 76 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 77 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009 78 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

91

● EA Credit 5: Measurement and Verification: 3/3 points : Develop

and implement a measurement and verification (M&V) plan

consistent with Option D: Calibrated Simulation (Savings

Estimation Method 2) as specified in the International Performance

Measurement & Verification Protocol (IPMVP) Volume III: Concepts

and Options for Determining Energy Savings in New Construction,

April 2003.The M&V period must cover at least 1 year of post-

construction occupancy.Provide a process for corrective action if

the results of the M&V plan indicate that energy savings are not

being achieved. Develop an M&V plan to evaluate building

and/or energy system performance. Characterize the building

and/or energy systems through energy simulation or engineering

analysis. Install the necessary metering equipment to measure

energy use. Track performance by comparing predicted

performance to actual performance, broken down by component or

system as appropriate. Evaluate energy efficiency by comparing

actual performance to baseline performance.79

● EA Credit 6: Green Power: 0/2 points : Encourage the

development and use of grid-source, renewable energy

technologies on a net zero pollution basis. Engage in at least a 2-

year renewable energy contract to provide at least 35% of the

building’s electricity from renewable sources, as defined by the

Center for Resource Solutions’ Green-e Energy product

certification requirements or an equivalent. All purchases of green

power shall be based on the quantity of energy consumed, not the 79 LEED 2009 New Constructions & Major Renovations – U.S. Green Building Council, 2009

92

cost. If the green power is not Green-e Energy certified,

equivalence must exist for both major Green-e Energy program

criteria: 1) current green power performance standards, and 2)

independent, third-party verification that those standards are being

met by the green power supplier over time. To determine Baseline

Electricity it is used the annual electricity consumption from the

results of EA Credit 1.80

Total Energy & Atmosphere points acquired: 7/35 Summary Results Tables:

M & R Credit Points Credit 1.1: Building reuse 3/3

Credit 1.2: Building reuse 1/1

Credit 2: Construction waste Management 2/2

Credit 3: Materials reuse 2/2

Credit 4: Recycled Content 2/2

Credit 5: Regional Materials 2/2

Credit 6: rapidly renewable Materials 0/1

Credit 7: Certified wood 1/1

Total Credit Points 13/14

E & A Credit Points

Credit 1: optimize energy performance 0/19

Credit 2: On-site Renewable Energy 0/7

Credit 3: Enhanced Commissioning 2/2

Credit 4: Enhanced Refrigerant Management 2/2

Credit 5: Measurement and Verification 3/3

Credit 6: Green Power 0/2



93

7.7. Modifications in materials and equipment able to improve the building performances

By the results obtained from the first energy simulation, it was visible

from the Potential Energy Graphic, that the main losses in the model,

compromising the project energy features were caused by walls

insulation, windows, roof insulation and infiltrations. The graph referred

as the four mentioned above, elements of potential improvement.

Modifications on three of the elements were needed, therefore as a

solution, insulations both on the roof and the walls, were improved in

thickness. As for the windows, having chosen double glass on the first

place, it seemed as a better technical solution the application of triple

windows with low E film.

By the simple adjustment of the building elements before mentioned, a

significant improvement was verified by the decrease of energy loss due

to infiltrations adjusted even more by the application of small graphic

devices and modeling (missing wall connections, gaps between curtain

walls and walls).

The contribution of solar panels was added to the project.

Below are shown the results obtained with the second simulation run

after the specified modifications. (Fig.33, Fig.34)

94

Summary Results Tables post-modifications:

E & A Credit Points

Credit 1: optimize energy performance 19/19

Credit 2: On-site Renewable Energy 2/7

Credit 3: Enhanced Commissioning 2/2

Credit 4: Enhanced Refrigerant Management 2/2

Credit 5: Measurement and Verification 3/3

Credit 6: Green Power 0/2


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8. Conclusions

By comparing the charts of the two simulation runs, it was evidently

visible a major improvement in the total annual energy consumptions:

● Total annual electric energy consumed: From 1659.684 KWh to 698.431 KWh - improvement of 58%

● Total annual fuel consumed: From 89.860 term to 43.758 term - improvement of 51%

● Total annual carbon emissions: From 1950.7 tons to 855.4 tons - improvement of 56%

Given the results the LEED Credit 1, 2 for the EA category, must be

updated:

● EA Credit 1: optimize energy performance:19/19 points from 12% to 48% improvement.81

● EA Credit 2: On-site Renewable Energy: 2/7 points82

Therefore the total updated score for the AE category is now 28/35.

The modifications brought to the model had a significative influence on

the final results. The weakest areas on which designers should mainly

focus are building envelope openings, which are the main cause of

leakages and energy dispersions and defining appropriate insulations,

keeping in mind that building walls have different orientations and


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expositions to sunlight, which can be use as a cooperative element for

natural heating in the winter. Proper shadings need to be positioned to

procure temperature stability in the summer, and help reduce the use of

AC systems, therefore energy.

The requirements of the two LEED category taken into account were

almost completely fulfilled. It has to be taken into consideration that the

study didn’t cover all the categories, being this a reason for which some

of the credits couldn’t be acquired (ex. lighting, water systems, natural

ventilation, plumbing). The results were given only by the materials,

HVAC system and solar panels energy contribute.

Readers must understand that designing a building incorporates a series

of technologies and systems that must cooperate and function

separately but influence each other and give a unique result. The PKI

project considered only two aspects of designing and with a specific

rating system that isn’t the quintessential and only applicable in green

building design, but certainly the most reliable today in the United States.

The PKI project was strictly defined and had requirements and

constraints established in the request of proposal document that couldn’t

be changed, for example the designated area for the extension building.

The model was created for a previous project as an architectural study,

this been said, few improvements were made under this point of view, in

relation to the original project. The modifications though, weren’t drastic

and of relevant importance, being this a study focused on the materials

and energy use of the model previously created.

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9. References

Digital references :

- United States Environmental Protection Agency – EPA (2016),

available at: http://www2.epa.gov/greenerproducts (accessed

November 2015)

- Whole Building Design Guide a Program of the National Institute of

Building Science (2016), available at:

https://www.wbdg.org/design/env_preferable_products.php

(accessed November 2015)

- ENERGY STAR (2016), available at: https://www.energystar.gov/

(accessed November 2015)

- National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2016), US Life-Cycle

Inventory Database, available at: http://www.nrel.gov/lci/ (accessed

December 2015)

- Wikipedia (2016), Peter Kiewit Institute, available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kiewit_Institute (accessed

January 2016)

- United States Department of Energy (2016), available at:

http://energy.gov/ (accessed January and February 2016)

- Autodesk Education (2016), available at:

http://www.autodesk.com/education/home (accessed December

2015, January and February 2016)

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Books:

- U.S. Green Building Council (2011), Green Building and LEED core

concepts, 2nd Edition, U.S. Green Building Council, Washington,

DC

- Cottrell M. (2011), Guide to the LEED Green Associate Exam, 1st

Edition, Wiley, Washington, DC

- Kruger A. and Seville C. (2013), Green Building - Principles &

Practices in residential construction, Delmar Cengage Learning,

Clifton Park, NY

- United States Green Building Council (2013), LEED 2009

Reference Guide, United States Green Building Council,

Washington, DC

- United States Green Building Council (2013), LEED 2009 New

Constructions & Major Renovations, United States Green Building

Council, Washington, DC

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10. Acknowledgments

I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor Prof. Ernesto Antonini

and my international advisor Prof. Avery Schwer, for the help and support

on writing this thesis and for being the two reference points both in Italy

and the United States, where my study has been conducted.

I would also like to thank all the students and friends I’ve met in these

past two years at UNO for being source of inspiration, help and support

in my project.

Finally I would like to thank my parents and my sister for their constant

presence, love and support throughout all my college career; Gokhan for

his unconditional love and teaching me the real meaning of persistence

and to never give up in front of whatever size obstacle we might incur in

life; my Italian friends Chiara, Elena, Elisa and Niccolò for being so close

even when I was so far.

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