GIUSY NEGRO

MUSIC BETWEEN PLAY AND COMMUNICATION

with an introduction by Paolo Pellegrino

Edizioni Circolo Virtuoso

© Copyright 2013 by Edizioni Circolo Virtuoso

73041 Carmiano (LE)

Tutti i diritti riservati

ISBN 978-88-97521-42-6

Data pubblicazione: 21 Febbraio 2013

Prezzo: € 7,00

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

by Paolo Pellegrino 3

Chapter I

ASPECTS OF MUSIC THEORY

I. Reflections upon communication 12

II. Kantian elements in the theory of responsible listening 16

III. Aspects of Th.W. Adorno’s philosophy of music 24

Chapter II

MUSIC, SOUND AND EXPERIENCE

I. Towards a linguistic conception of music 31

II. Multicultural society, education, music 34

III. The sound and the ineffable 39

IV. Discovering sounds 43

Chapter III

MUSIC THERAPY

I. From music to music therapy 46

II. Playing with music 53

III. Music therapy 57

Chapter IV

MUSIC AND TEACHING STRATEGIES

I. Music and its effects in children 64

II. Music and didactics 68

CONCLUSIONS 72

BIBLIOGRAPHY 74

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INTRODUCTION

1. This book is a complete and ambitious programme of musical education, although its

potential exceeds school activities. According to the Author’s express purpose, “playing with

music” becomes an appealing way of initiating children into the world of sounds, as “sound

perception is the basis for a good understanding of music”.

But “learning by playing” is not the only purpose of this book: it also includes an

exhaustive study of music therapy, an aspect of great importance from a clinical point of

view. It is a technique that has achieved widespread success: whenever the foetus listens to

his mother’s cardiac rhythm or to the sounds from the surrounding world, he stores up

memories that can be recollected for the benefit of the cognitive system.

Music is amusement by virtue of its exceptional evocative and communicative power. A

sound theoretical structure is the background of this book, which sifts music through the

litmus paper of mass media communication and other relevant categories of interpretation,

including Kant’s concise model anticipating the theory of responsible listening: the isolated

moments of sensory fascination (the so called “catchiness”) turn out to be incompatible with

the immanent structure of the work of art, which lives in a substantial unity. Music is not

only amusement: it is also a source of knowledge of primary importance.

This is a theory by the great philosopher and musicologist Th. W. Adorno, who died in

1969 and to whom the Author gives a lot of space in the first chapter. The idea of music as an

expression of the tension and the unbridgeable rifts in modern society is the leitmotif of

Adorno’s musicology and his philosophical sociology, where some elements of the Marxist

ideology, the left-wing Hegelianism and the “negative” philosophy are also to be found. He

proceeded from an accurate analysis of the phenomena of aesthetic commercialization caused

by the mass-culture industry and adopted the loneliness of avant-garde and the radicalism of

his linguistic choices as his tragic and utopian salvation from the processes of standardizing

rationalization started by the mature capitalism. This attitude is exemplified by Adorno’s

interpretation of Schönberg’s music in Philosophy of Modern Music (1949), where

Schönberg’s school is theoretically set against Stravinskij’s “reified” neoclassicism. The

categories of Adorno’s philosophy, which are to be found in his essays Wagner (1952) and

Mahler (1960) as well, strongly influenced musical avant-garde’s way of thinking in the

postwar period. He was an acute, sometimes polemical observer of the developments of these

ideologies.

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The Author examines Adorno’s essays about Beethoven as collected in his famous

posthumous work Beethoven. The Philosophy of Music1. Everybody knows the theoretical and

interpretative value of this work2, to which Adorno devoted a long time and a lot of study –

the earliest fragments on this subject date back to 1934, the last revision to the middle of the

sixties – without succeeding in finishing it. In fact he never worked on the drawing up of the

book: on the one hand, because of the complexity of Beethoven’s production; on the other

hand, because the philosopher was convinced that it was historically impossible to hold a

dialogue with a kind of music expressing humanity after Auschwitz. His fragments about

Beethoven are little more than some hints at a subject that he had no more reason to deal with

in a period when the “better worlds” praised by the greatest German musician seemed to be

the grotesque derision of an offended humanity. Such a conflict is the reason why the book

has never been written; its fragments correspond to the sadness of most of Beethoven’s music,

which mystically “speaks” to man and waits for an answer in vain.

One of Adorno’s basic theories in the earliest fragments sketches the close relationship

between music and thought and compares the role of Beethoven in the history of western

music to the uniqueness of Hegelian philosophy (fr. 24). Such a lapidary statement is enough

to understand the theoretical value of Adorno’s Beethoven and to dispel the suspicion of an

incidental hyperbole; on the contrary, the leadership of the two figures dissolves in the

identity of their contents: “Beethoven’s music is Hegelian philosophy”.

Adorno created “the essence” of the comparison between Hegel’s Logic and Beethoven’s

music (the composer is said to be the “prototype of the revolutionary middle class”, fr. 109),

so we should not think of these fragments, which supplement the eight volumes of the

Gesammelte Schriften, as a philological curiosity, but as an invitation to get to the heart of

Adorno’s philosophy and music criticism. The reflections upon Beethoven throw light upon

the mechanism that produced Adorno’s aesthetics. A constant factor in his theoretical model

is to be found here: his refusing to consider art and philosophy as two separate languages, as

traditional aesthetics did on the grounds of the “theory of the monistic-symbolic-intuitive

essence of art”. In other words the basic categories of Hegelian philosophy and the aesthetics

understood as philosophy of music converge – “music may be the only source the purest and

strictest concept of art comes from” (par. 13) -, whereas the process started by Beethoven in

1 TH. W. ADORNO, Beethoven. Philosophie der Musik. Fragmente und Texte [Beethoven. The Philosophy of

Music], R. Tiedemann (Ed.), Frankfurt am Mein 1993. 2 Compare with two interesting reviews: F. Luisetti, Il tramonto della bellezza [The decline of beauty], and C.

Migliaccio, Tecnica e Metafisica [Technique and Metaphysics], both published in “L’indice”, XIX (2002), n. 9.

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order to make music an independent language turns the technical problems into philosophical

dilemmas.

Beethoven’s music - composed in a “period when music, rather than poetry, met

philosophy, at least in Germany” (fr. 69) - used “anything but outworn means” to express the

antinomies in the middle class and the impossibility of reconciling individuality and social

totality from an aesthetic point of view. The development of themes and static repeats, tone

harmonization and amorphous details coexist so much in Beethoven’s major works, that every

single element is useful to the whole and dissolves in its particularity at the same time. The

result of the inner polarization of music and its contents is the “enigma” in Beethoven’s last

works: he “turns the impossibility of an aesthetic harmony into aesthetic contents”, in order to

preserve both polyphony and aphoristic motifs.

According to Adorno Beethoven’s late works are a full rebellion against the flowery

elements in music and against everything is not objectively necessary. Therefore, “the

assertion of the idea of music in itself becomes the reason for the loss of ‘classicism’,

fullness, harmony, rotundity, perfection”. This late style with its contrast between monody

and polyphony is the evolution of Beethoven’s classicism, which breaks into fragments in

order to be the purest essence of music, “classically” free from frills (compare fr. 269). The

distinctive feature in Beethoven’s late style is the dissociation of centre, that is to say the end

of harmony. If lyrical appearance breaks into fragments and the form itself tends towards a

fragmentary nature, we are faced with “ruins”. Another theme stands out and esplicitly evokes

Benjamin’s motif of the Angelus Novus, the angel of history whom a storm “irresistibly drives

towards future, on which he turns his back, while the heap of ruins rises before him in the

sky”. The “thought of death” predominates in the background, i.e. the devastating fury in the

face of which “the rights of art cease”. This is one of the crucial elements in Adorno’s

interpretation3.

The enigma of Beethoven’s late style, which recurs in the finest pages of this book, merges

into the enigma of Adorno’s aesthetics. The “genuine” modern art which Adorno defends

reacts against the rule of culture industry with the renunciation of aesthetic illusion and

sensible appearance “in favour of knowledge”.

3 With regard to Beethoven’s late style compare with Arbo’s contribution in “Aut-Aut”, special issue, May-June

1988, n. 225, pp. 81-90. For an outline of Adorno’s way of thinking cf. P. Pellegrino, Teoria critica e teoria

estetica in Th. W. Adorno [Critical and aesthetical theory in Th. W. Adorno], Argo, Lecce 20042.

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2. But apart from Adorno’s ingenious interpretation, what is the meaning and the cognitive

role of music? Can we briefly define the specific character of music? Furthermore: can the

categories of music analysis voice the emotions that a piece by Bach, Schubert or Mahler stirs

up? What is the relation between the criticism of music form and the aesthetic judgements

suggested by listeners’ “sensitiveness”?4

The basic questions about the conceptual definition of music - and about the changes it has

undergone from the origins of Western cultural tradition to the present time - cause a lot of

problems, especially with regard to the fusion of meaning and emotions, which seems to hide

the secret of a piece. Whereas in ancient times (from Pythagoras onwards) music was

associated with numerical relations, which revealed the harmony of universe, whereas St.

Augustin used to call music “scientia bene modulandi”, the musical practice prevailing at the

beginning of modern times referred to the sphere of affectivity and emotions; the eighteenth-

century rationalism and the Romantic irrationalism led up to the assertion of the “non-

semantic nature” of musical expression on the one hand, and to the conception of music as a

“language” on the other hand. “What is music then?”, the Austrian composer Anton Webern

wondered; and answered: “Music is a language. Through this language man tries to express

that kind of thoughts he cannot turn into concepts, as they are musical thoughts”. “Everybody

would like to use sounds to communicate something cannot be expressed otherwise. In this

sense music is a language”5.

As a matter of fact music is not only a “sound-moved form”, as Eduard Hanslick stated6; in

addition to its syntactic structure, or better still blended with it, the “language of sounds” has a

semantic component, i.e. it has contents. Moreover, the translation of such contents into

words is not unworkable, as the Romantics holding fast to the idea of the “ineffability” of

music thought; besides being legitimate, putting music into words and conceptualizing it may

be helpful for communication, intersubjectiveness, rational discussion and verifiability. The

model of music analysis takes its place in this setting: analysts’ work must be directed to the

exploration and definition of the conceptual contents of music and to the interpretation of its

meaning. Such work is not a mere study of the hidden structure of music; far from showing

4 Cf. C. DAHLHAUS, Analyse und Werturteil [Analysis and Value Judgement], Mainz 1970.

5 A. WEBERN, Der Weg zur neuen Musik [The Way to Modern Music],W. Reich (Ed.), Wien 1960, pp. 46, 17.

6 E. HANSLICK, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen [The Beautiful in Music], Leipzig 1854. According to Hanslick each

form of art should be understood in itself, i.e. in its technical peculiarity; the formal “inquiry” gradually replaces

the Hegelian “method”, i.e. the principle that particular aesthetics completely depends on superior general

aesthetics.

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too technical an image of analysis, it meets music criticism in many ways7. Besides studying

this model in depth, the essays in this book give some interesting examples of it.

3. A whole chapter of this book deals with music therapy, its relation to childhood and its

effectiveness as a remedy for many clinical cases.

By music therapy we mean a preventive and rehabilitative intervention that uses musical

expression (as a non-verbal communication form) for the stimulation and the development of

faculties such as affectivity, motion, language, etc. Such an intervention is intended for both

children and adults.

Whereas the therapeutic purpose falls under the competence of doctors

(neuropsychiatrists), the preventive and rehabilitative one can be undertaken by experts in

various disciplines (pedagogics, psychology, etc.). The different forms of intervention are

adopted exclusively or to support other cures. We can distinguish two main interrelated

procedures: a “receptive” approach and an “active” one. The receptive approach consists in

listening to sound messages (rhythmical or musical) selected from musical literature or from

particular sound situations or suitably created by the therapist before or during his meeting

with patients. The active approach consists in making music (in the widest meaning of the

word, including both conventional and heterodox creations) with musical instruments,

objects, parts of body and in individual or group expressions.

We can also distinguish different spheres of intervention: the relational sphere, i.e. the

cases in which it is essential to motivate, stimulate and support some affective and emotional

attitudes that turned out to be disordered and to impede normal communication and social

relations; the motor sphere: the intervention aims at stimulating and supporting movements

from a functional and expressive point of view; the verbal sphere: the intervention aims at

stimulating verbal communication with regard to rhythm and phonetics; the sensory sphere

(auditive and visual): the therapist intervenes to improve and specialize the residual hearing

through tactile, visceral or bone stimuli or to improve and specialize the sense of hearing in

the blind through information contributing to the knowledge of reality. The sound messages

with hypnotic and relaxing qualities proved to be particularly useful to relieve pain.

Because of the recent origins of music therapy and because of its interdisciplinary

character (which links it to information theory, cybernetics, semiotics, musicology,

7 Cf. H.H. EGGEBRECHT, Musik verstehen [Understanding music], München 1995. Please allow me to refer to my

own contribution too: “L’ascolto e il riascolto in musica: problemi di estetica e analisi musicale” [Listening to

music and listening to it again: aesthetical and music-analytical questions], in L’estetica del neoidealismo

italiano, Congedo Editore, Galatina 1996, pp. 209-226.

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psychoanalysis, theory of creativity, etc.) there are partly converging views, rather than

unanimously accepted criteria. The cultural bases for the discipline can be found in the

anthropological and existential branches of psychology, in psychoanalysis itself (as music can

help us bring aggressive or repressed impulses to light and sublimate them) and in

behaviourism as well, which makes use of musical experience as a means of compensation in

negative or conflictual situations. Music therapy has been successfully employed in many

countries for several decades; it proved to be able to overcome the resistance that patients

offered to other therapeutical instructions.

4. The above-mentioned outline of music theory and music therapy may be considered the

starting point for the treatment of musical education and the strategies favouring the teaching

of music.

We need to make some preliminary remarks. Musical education is a recently developed

field of research. If education is aimed at forming the personality and the sociability of pupils,

rather than transferring technical knowledge to them, the age-old custom of music academies

may not be considered - strictly speaking - as pertaining to education. In academies teaching

usually takes the form of professional training, although new educational systems began to

spread between the late sixties and the early eighties of the twentieth century. Musical

education in the true sense has been carried out in non-professional schools and in non-

specialized teaching since the early twentieth century. The inclusion of music in

interdisciplinary programmes inspired a new concept of didactics and started a series of

experiences and suggestions, which developed abroad and reached Italy in the sixties.

Research has subsequently differentiated.

The expression “musical education” may be interpreted in different ways: firstly, it can

denote the practice of teaching; secondly, it names one of the curricular school subjects.

Therefore it may correspond with an educational model that is (or should be) the basis for

practical experience. Finally, the expression in a broad sense can refer to research and to

anything is planned, proposed or carried out about the teaching of music. We further use the

expression “didactics of music” to refer to all methods and strategies that enable us to

translate a certain model into specific practice.

According to the modern theory of “curricula” a model of musical education should mainly

contain the goals to be achieved (i.e. what must be learnt), the contents (broadly speaking: the

activities, the forms of knowledge) and the teaching methods. All that should be defined in

relation to factors such as the nature of the cultural subject (i.e. what we mean by music, what

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kinds of phenomena are included in it, what sociocultural purposes it serves), the qualities of

each pupil (psychological traits, knowledge, social context, needs) and the main educational

principles.

As the Author appropriately points out, we must bear these concepts in mind in

considering the stages in the progress of research into musical education, which probably

developed from the nineteenth-century pedagogical thought. A new conception of teaching -

where art, sensibility and expressiveness played a leading role even in non-professional

education – became the basis for the modern active methodologies in the teaching of music.

The educational models by E. Pestalozzi, J.F. Herbart, F. Fröbel and other scholars share

the same rejection of abstract teaching, the request for concreteness in learning, the insistence

on the necessity of adapting teaching to pupils’ physical and mental development and to their

interests and needs as well. Hence the stress on intuition, which Pestalozzi regards as the basis

for knowledge, the call for spontaneousness (which may seem ingenuous today, as it reminds

us of the myth of “natural knowledge” as enunciated in Rousseau’s Emil), the insistence on

children’s characteristic way of learning and on the role of games in forming their

personalities (as theorized by Fröbel). These models also share the belief that the mind of a

child is not a tabula rasa where anything can be written, but a store of prior knowledge to

which educationists should refer as a point of departure.

Art activities are considered as essential as science for the development of personality.

Scholars are far from the old imitative principles and the old conception of teaching as they

state that art education “starts from the use of the senses, organs and limbs” (hence the need

for “elementary exercise”, cf. Pestalozzi) or as they point out the effectiveness of games for

training children to rhythm and singing (Fröbel).

Music – as well as the other forms of art – is considered a synthesis of the senses and the

inner life and a means of expressing one’s own corporeity, affectivity and intelligence.

Through music we gain self-awareness and fulfil ourselves in the social context we belong to

at the same time. In the last chapter the Author stresses the positive and invigorating effects

that music has on children with regard to perception, affectivity, motivation and creativity.

She brings honour to some pioneering intuitions by Ferrante Aporti, Rosa Agazzi and – in

particular - Maria Montessori, who insisted on sound perception as the basis for a good

understanding of music.

* * * *

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This introduction is an attempt to clear up the purpose on which Giusy Negro wrote her

book, which alternates reflections upon music with methodological suggestions for teaching.

The essay is organized into thematic blocks that may seem not strictly interrelated from a

formal point of view. Such a structure probably reflects the Author’s personality and her

interests. A guiding thread is to be found in it, however: the ambivalence of music, which can

act as a game and a powerful instrument of communication at the same time. Hence the spin-

off it provides for clinical medicine (music therapy) and education. The Author displays a

clear understanding of the world of sounds and a profound passion for teaching in this book.

She will certainly carry on her research work with interesting results.

Lecce, 25th April 2009

Paolo Pellegrino

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