Chapter 8

The Labor Market

Labor Supply

• The willingness and ability to work specific amounts of time at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.

Labor Supply

Income vs. Leisure

• The opportunity cost of working is the amount of leisure time that must be given up in the process:– Opportunity cost is the most desired goods or

services that are forgone in order to obtain something else.

Income vs. Leisure

• As the opportunity cost of work increases, we require higher rates of pay.

• The marginal utility of income declines as more is earned.

Income vs. Leisure

• The upward slope of an individual labor supply curve reflects two things:– Increasing opportunity cost of labor.– Decreasing marginal utility of income.

Market Supply

• Market supply of labor – the total quantity of labor that workers are willing and able to supply at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.

• As labor-market entrants increase, the quantity of labor supplied goes up.

Labor Demand

• Demand for labor – the quantities of labor employers are willing and able to hire at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.

The Demand for Labor

Derived Demand

• The quantity of resources purchased by a business depends on the firm’s expected sales and output.

• The demand for labor depends on the demand for the product that the labor is producing.

Derived Demand

• Derived Demand:– The demand for labor and other factors of

production results (is derived) from the demand for the final goods and services produced by these factors.

The Wage Rate

• The quantity of labor demanded depends on its price - the wage rate.

Marginal Physical Product (MPP)

• We measure a worker’s value to the firm by his or her marginal physical product (MPP).

Marginal physical product = change in total output

change in quantity of labor

Marginal Physical Product (MPP)

• Marginal physical product – the change in total output associated with one additional unit of input:

Marginal Physical Product (MPP)

• In most situations, the marginal physical product declines as more workers are hired.

Marginal Physical Product (MPP)

Marginal Physical Product (MPP)

Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)

• Marginal revenue product – the change in total revenue associated with one additional unit of input:

Marginal revenue product = change in total revenue

change in quantity of labor

Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)

• Marginal revenue product sets an upper limit to the wage rate an employer will pay.

Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)

The Law of Diminishing Returns

• The marginal physical product of labor eventually declines (or diminishes) as the quantity of labor employed increases.

• Marginal physical product declines as more people must share limited facilities.

The Law of Diminishing Returns

• The Law of Diminishing Returns:– The marginal physical product of a variable

factor declines as more of it is employed with a given quantity of other (fixed) inputs.

The Law of Diminishing Returns

Diminishing Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)

• As MPP diminishes so does MRP.

MRP = MPP x p

• If p is assumed to be constant, then MRP diminishes along with MPP.

Diminishing Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)

The Hiring Decision

• How many workers that will be hired is determined by the demand for and supply of labor.

The Firm’s Demand for Labor

• A firm will continue to hire until the MRP has declined to the level of the market wage rate.

• The Marginal Revenue Product curve is the labor-demand curve.

The Firm’s Demand for Labor

• Each (identical) worker is worth no more than the MRP of the last worker hired, and all workers are paid the same wage rate.

The Labor-Demand Curve

Market Equilibrium

• The market demand for labor depends on:– The number of employers.– The Marginal Revenue Product of labor in

each firm and the industry.

Market Equilibrium

• The market supply of labor depends on:– The number of workers.– Each workers’ willingness to work at alternative

wage rates.

Equilibrium Wage

• The intersection of the market supply and demand curves establishes the equilibrium wage.

• It is the only wage where the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity of labor demanded.

Equilibrium Wage

Equilibrium Employment

• The only sustainable level of employment in a market given the prevailing supply and demand conditions.

Changing Market Outcomes

• Changing market conditions alter wages and employment levels:– Changes in labor productivity– Changes in the price of the good produced by

labor– Legal minimum wages– Labor unions

Changes in Productivity

• If labor productivity (MPP) rises, wages can increase without sacrificing jobs.

• Increased productivity implies that workers can get higher wages without sacrificing jobs or more employment without lowering wages.

Changes in Price

• Marginal revenue product reflects the interaction of productivity and product prices.

• MRP depends on the market price of the product being produced.

• MRP shifts to the right if the market price of a product increases.

Shifts in Labor-Demand

Legal Minimum Wages

• Minimum wages are mandated by Congress.

• Effects of a minimum wage:– Reduces the quantity of labor demanded.– Increases the quantity of labor supplied.– Creates a market surplus.– Some workers end up better off while others

end up worse off (a tradeoff).

Minimum-Wage Effects

Labor Unions

• Workers may take collective action to get higher wages.

• They form a labor union and bargain collectively with employers.

• A union must exclude some workers from the market to get and maintain an above-equilibrium wage.

Labor Unions

• Unions decrease wages in non-union industries.

• Excluded workers increase non-union labor supply.

The Effect of Unions on Relative Wages

Capping CEO Pay

• Critics of CEO (Chief Executive Officer) pay levels want to reduce their pay and revise the process used to set their pay levels.

Unmeasured MRP

• Measuring the MRP of a CEO is difficult because a CEO’s contributions are not easy to quantify.

• CEO salaries are higher because they reflect their opportunity wage:– Opportunity wage is the highest wage an

individual would earn in his or her best alternative job.

The Labor Market

End of Chapter 8End of Chapter 8