Labor Market
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Transcript of Labor Market
Chapter 8
The Labor Market
Labor Supply
• The willingness and ability to work specific amounts of time at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.
Labor Supply
Income vs. Leisure
• The opportunity cost of working is the amount of leisure time that must be given up in the process:– Opportunity cost is the most desired goods or
services that are forgone in order to obtain something else.
Income vs. Leisure
• As the opportunity cost of work increases, we require higher rates of pay.
• The marginal utility of income declines as more is earned.
Income vs. Leisure
• The upward slope of an individual labor supply curve reflects two things:– Increasing opportunity cost of labor.– Decreasing marginal utility of income.
Market Supply
• Market supply of labor – the total quantity of labor that workers are willing and able to supply at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.
• As labor-market entrants increase, the quantity of labor supplied goes up.
Labor Demand
• Demand for labor – the quantities of labor employers are willing and able to hire at alternative wage rates in a given time period, ceteris paribus.
The Demand for Labor
Derived Demand
• The quantity of resources purchased by a business depends on the firm’s expected sales and output.
• The demand for labor depends on the demand for the product that the labor is producing.
Derived Demand
• Derived Demand:– The demand for labor and other factors of
production results (is derived) from the demand for the final goods and services produced by these factors.
The Wage Rate
• The quantity of labor demanded depends on its price - the wage rate.
Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
• We measure a worker’s value to the firm by his or her marginal physical product (MPP).
Marginal physical product = change in total output
change in quantity of labor
Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
• Marginal physical product – the change in total output associated with one additional unit of input:
Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
• In most situations, the marginal physical product declines as more workers are hired.
Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
Marginal Physical Product (MPP)
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)
• Marginal revenue product – the change in total revenue associated with one additional unit of input:
Marginal revenue product = change in total revenue
change in quantity of labor
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)
• Marginal revenue product sets an upper limit to the wage rate an employer will pay.
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)
The Law of Diminishing Returns
• The marginal physical product of labor eventually declines (or diminishes) as the quantity of labor employed increases.
• Marginal physical product declines as more people must share limited facilities.
The Law of Diminishing Returns
• The Law of Diminishing Returns:– The marginal physical product of a variable
factor declines as more of it is employed with a given quantity of other (fixed) inputs.
The Law of Diminishing Returns
Diminishing Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)
• As MPP diminishes so does MRP.
MRP = MPP x p
• If p is assumed to be constant, then MRP diminishes along with MPP.
Diminishing Marginal Revenue Product (MRP)
The Hiring Decision
• How many workers that will be hired is determined by the demand for and supply of labor.
The Firm’s Demand for Labor
• A firm will continue to hire until the MRP has declined to the level of the market wage rate.
• The Marginal Revenue Product curve is the labor-demand curve.
The Firm’s Demand for Labor
• Each (identical) worker is worth no more than the MRP of the last worker hired, and all workers are paid the same wage rate.
The Labor-Demand Curve
Market Equilibrium
• The market demand for labor depends on:– The number of employers.– The Marginal Revenue Product of labor in
each firm and the industry.
Market Equilibrium
• The market supply of labor depends on:– The number of workers.– Each workers’ willingness to work at alternative
wage rates.
Equilibrium Wage
• The intersection of the market supply and demand curves establishes the equilibrium wage.
• It is the only wage where the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity of labor demanded.
Equilibrium Wage
Equilibrium Employment
• The only sustainable level of employment in a market given the prevailing supply and demand conditions.
Changing Market Outcomes
• Changing market conditions alter wages and employment levels:– Changes in labor productivity– Changes in the price of the good produced by
labor– Legal minimum wages– Labor unions
Changes in Productivity
• If labor productivity (MPP) rises, wages can increase without sacrificing jobs.
• Increased productivity implies that workers can get higher wages without sacrificing jobs or more employment without lowering wages.
Changes in Price
• Marginal revenue product reflects the interaction of productivity and product prices.
• MRP depends on the market price of the product being produced.
• MRP shifts to the right if the market price of a product increases.
Shifts in Labor-Demand
Legal Minimum Wages
• Minimum wages are mandated by Congress.
• Effects of a minimum wage:– Reduces the quantity of labor demanded.– Increases the quantity of labor supplied.– Creates a market surplus.– Some workers end up better off while others
end up worse off (a tradeoff).
Minimum-Wage Effects
Labor Unions
• Workers may take collective action to get higher wages.
• They form a labor union and bargain collectively with employers.
• A union must exclude some workers from the market to get and maintain an above-equilibrium wage.
Labor Unions
• Unions decrease wages in non-union industries.
• Excluded workers increase non-union labor supply.
The Effect of Unions on Relative Wages
Capping CEO Pay
• Critics of CEO (Chief Executive Officer) pay levels want to reduce their pay and revise the process used to set their pay levels.
Unmeasured MRP
• Measuring the MRP of a CEO is difficult because a CEO’s contributions are not easy to quantify.
• CEO salaries are higher because they reflect their opportunity wage:– Opportunity wage is the highest wage an
individual would earn in his or her best alternative job.
The Labor Market
End of Chapter 8End of Chapter 8