RISE - Rivista Internazionale di Studi Europei5 EDITORIALE RISE - RIVISTA INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI...

RISE - Rivista Internazionale di Studi EuropeiOTTOBRE 2015, N. 4 | ANNO I

Centro Europe Direct LUPTUniversità degli Studi di Napoli Federico II

SommarioImmigration: a resource for a Europe united in diversity. pg. 3 di Guglielmo Trupiano Citizenship, multiculturalism, history pg. 12di Mariano Bonavolontà The European Court of Justice: a catalyst for European integration pg. 18 di Domitilla Sartorio Fire events in airport, maritime, underground and railway stations: fire engineering and liability pg. 24 di Donatella de Silva, Ferdinando Mancini Predictions on the seismic response of monumental towers on soft soil pg. 33 di Filomena de Silva, Francesco Silvestri Uniti nella diversità. La giornata europea delle lingue.pg. 42di Amelia Bandini Vegan or Vegetarian? An investigation into the current usage of the terms in English, French, Spanish and Italian.pg. 50di Micol Forte, Francesco Nacchia “Nutrire il Pianeta. Energia per la Vita”, lo sviluppo sostenibile nell’ottica di una cultura per la crescita e l’occupazione all’Expo Milano 2015.pg. 68di Enrica Rapolla I Biofuels: la vera frontiera energetica rinnovabilepg. 76di Antonietta Maria Nisi Nuove norme per il rilancio dell’Edilizia pg. 82di Isabella Martuscelli

ISSN 2421-583X Anno I, Numero 4 Newsletter tematica di ottobre 01-30 ottobre

In Coperina:

Il Colosseo in un dipinto di Bernardo Bellotto (1721-1780)

Le opinioni espresse in questa pubblicazione sono esclusivamente quelle degli autori. La Commissione non è responsabile dell’eventuale utilizzo delle informazioni contenute in tale pubblicazione. Questa pubblicazione è realizzata con il contributo dell’Unione europea.

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Guglielmo Trupiano

Erminia AttaianeseMarisa Squillante Anna Elvira Arnò Teresa BocciaMariano BonavolontàCarmen CioffiStefano De FalcoFrancesca DovettoGabriella DucaVincenza Faraco Jorgen Vitting AndersenFrancesco Saverio CoppolaChiara CorboAntonio CorvinoCarmen CosteaFilippo de RossiPierre EcochardAna FalùPier Paolo ForteSerge GalamAlessandro GiordaniMassimo MarrelliMilena Petters MeloHeike MunderChristian NicolasGiovanni PolaraAntonio RapollaInes Sanchez de MadariagaMassimo SquillanteMatthias VogtMarco Zupi

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Antonio AciernoMariarosalba AngrisaniAmelia BandiniBarbara BertoliRoberta CapuanoFlavia CavaliereBice CavalloGiovanni Del ConteBarbara Delle DonneMaria EspositoLoreta FerravantePaola FiorentinoEttore GuerreraValeria MaioranoGiuseppina MariMario MasciocchiFerdinando Maria MustoAntonietta Maria NisiStefania PalmentieriEnrica RapollaLoredana RivieccioMaria ScognamiglioDaniela SavyMaria Camilla Spena

Bice Cavallo Mariano Bonavolontà Valeria Pucci

di GUGLIELMO TRUPIANO Direttore responsabile della Rivista Internazionale di Studi Europei RISE Direttore del Centro Europe Direct LUPT Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II

Immigration: a resource for a Europe united in diversity.

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RISE - RIvISTA InTERnAzIOnALE DI STuDI EuROpEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSn 2421-583X

Abstract

This paper scrutinises the current phenomenon of the refugees’ crisis, which is spreading all over Europe and it identifies several standpoints to look, at and to think about, this tragic issue. The paper focuses on the behaviour and attitudes shown by several Countries during the last few weeks, continuously changing the geopolitical orders of the EU, with particular reference to new emerging dynamics in the nearly annexed East and in a “guiltily” forgotten Mediterranean South. Starting from, and continuously referring to, President Juncker’s last speech on the “State of the Union”, the article shares and proposes the need to face and manage the issue of the refugees’ crisis with a political approach that is considered as the key to cope with this crisis. The paper assumes that this is a typical momentum for the

European Union: depending on its ability to act as internally united, the EU will demonstrate its capacity or incapacity to continue to effectively build the actual and deep Union. In other words, Europe is now facing a double crisis: the refugees’ crisis and its internal unity crisis. Finally, the author proposes to focus on the Mediterranean, which should recover its centrality in the policies of Europe*.

* This article has been submitted on the 14th of September 2015

© European Union 2015 - European Parliament

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Overcoming permanence is an act that has always been inherent in human nature. The migrating of entire populations made it possible for anthropologists to retrace the roots of the historical and geographical evolution of mankind and its evolution.Experts in cultural studies have tirelessly introduced the theorem of permanence as a feature that is not discernible in all cultures.Many are the intrinsic characteristics of the migration phenomenon, among these, two are the components that cannot be overlooked when analysing this complex and controversial topic:firstly, immigration and migration phenomena always entail a human component, and secondly, immigration always involves effects and repercussions on society.Firmly believing that immigration involves a human component is not just a rhetorical assumption: it keeps our attention focused on the dissertation “contents”, moreover, it raises several related issues such as, and most importantly, issues regarding protection of human rights, the topic of political asylum and the welfare system, without omitting all legal implications and the field of international law.Secondly, and this is the area that interests me the most, the phenomenon of immigration has deep effects on the society that houses the immigrants, with a specular perspective.The immigration phenomena generate positive and negative dynamics: migration waves wreak cultural syncretism. The USA, i.e., represent a direct testimony of how diverse and diversified linguistic, ethnic and social families would have enriched the territorial social cultures by creating and institutionalising a miscellanea of subcultures that can boost the immaterial culture legacy. Indeed, when a minority, resulting from an immigration wave, is institutionalised, the institutionalised society and its culture could benefit from the innovations brought by the immigrants.In truth, even Europe and its cities have taken advantage of these dynamics for a very long time. I am referring to the architecture of the European city: it proudly shows its stratifications and layering that narrate multiple styles brought to the city by the

migration and immigration, which led to an empowerment of the city’s material heritage. With reference to the immaterial legacy, migration streams bring additional enriching elements, especially in the field of traditions and language. For example, in London, a thick range of linguistic and cultural innovations could be detected, which make the English language richer. Moreover, the phenomenology of immigration is strictly linked to the national stories, as proof of its so accentuated cultural component. Undeniably, immigration routes follow the ancient colonisation ones, as if deep navigation canals were traced among continents and continuously reutilised as immigration’s routes. Consequently, French speaking North Africa would be more attracted to France, whilst Egypt and India will be more inclined to retrace the ancient ways which connected them with London in the past.

Nevertheless, immigration could cause several problems: the latter could trigger unrestrained and often politically exploited phenomena, which are usually ascribed to NIMBY syndrome and then exacerbated by the political debate. Meanwhile, objective problems are detected within immigration phenomena, such as the numerous sanitarian emergencies and bad management that could lead to actual idiosyncrasies (as in the recent case of immigrants settlement in the hotels of the central-northern Italian Riviera), which contribute to the creation of a fairly high radicalisation of the problem.This combination of negative problems marginalises and/or darkens the positive features and it is not a surprise that Denmark chose to publish a letter of discouragement for the immigration phenomenon on Lebanese newspapers.

Immigration emergency is a field where the frontier territories’ contradictions become even more radical. An example is represented by the southern coasts of Italy, which are collapsing under the weight of this phenomenon, even more tragic and unsustainable, despite the incomparable efforts of humanitarian aiders. This situation

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results in the worsening of the attitudes against immigration and in the strengthening of a European image, which is far from the coasts and abandons its most peripheral territories. In the meantime, mass media exploits the phenomenon, often brutally, by following the audience reasons and criteria that lay on the debatable limits of freedom of information and expression, and by increasing and amplifying the preoccupation of the public opinion on the phenomenon. It is not a coincidence that migration is attested as the European citizens’ first preoccupation and it is woven with terrorism and political violence. Usually, as in a non-totally justified semantic synthesis, these two concerns seem to proceed in parallel and on the same

level, dangerously inclined1.

More in particular, migration routes continue to perturb geopolitical orders on which Europe has tried to found its foreign policy. European integration scholars have already demonstrated that, during the period of massive enlargement of the EU towards the East, Europe’s barycentre has been moved consequently towards East, probably following the logics of geo-economic convenience. But, this licit attention towards and beyond the Balkans has not been adequately counterbalanced by a focalisation on the Mediterranean’s

1 Eurobarometer Standard n. 83 http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb83/eb83_first_en.pdf p. 14

© European Union 2012 - European Parliament

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb83/eb83_first_en.pdf



https://www.flickr.com/photos/european_parliament/7362211494/in/photolist-9Gv4zR-cdzfYW-9QVGyc-avqaYT-avbJFp-avqaXB-avqaVT-avbJF6-avbJEX-avbJER-bpMZE9-bpMZAC-bpMZGd-bCGVx8-9TLxHo-9THJJr-6rJWVL-8h4oDF-9Ges5D-ch3SwS-cdMkiy-bX219a-cdzfYf-ceomHw-9QVGBD-6rEpNg

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resources. The basin of “Mare Nostrum” owns an unexpressed potential, which has not been wisely managed because it has been “darkened” by the geopolitical priorities coming from the East. Now, as an already deflagrated bomb, the Mediterranean’s role on the international and European theatre has vehemently imposed itself; the tragic effects, which were deadened in the past, have strongly and vigorously summoned Brussels’ attention with their whole devastating dramatic nature.It is clear that it is not possible to address the topic by following a national approach because the migration phenomenon is objectively complex and a national perspective is no longer enough. Italy, together with Greece and Malta first and then with Hungary, are surely more exposed to the phenomenon, but the problem, as well as the approach, should be global and, above all, political.In fact, these prerogatives are recalled in the recent speech by President Juncker on the “State of the Union”2 held on the 9th of September in Strasburg, that has underlined, on the proscenium of the speech, the refugees’ crisis, reiterating the political nature of the Commission.Referring to this last concept, surely the immigration phenomenon presents wide social, economic, geographical and cultural aspects, but it is mainly a purely political issue and so it cannot be treated with a technical or technocratic approach. These kinds of methods can be effective for economy but they cannot be used while dealing with a complex and epochal dramatic phenomena as immigration/emigration and political refugees.Exploiting a political approach means to brave the complexity of the refugee’s world without being scared by what can be found; only a political approach takes into account the diverse variables which compose this phenomenon. Political approach means to strive into a «historical fairness» operation, as Juncker has specified in his speech on the “State of the Union”:

2 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-15-5614_en.htm

«We Europeans should remember well that Europe is a continent where nearly everyone has at one time been a refugee. Our common history is marked by millions of Europeans fleeing from religious or political persecution, from war, dictatorship, or oppression».

So, far from a mere institutional approach, the political one entices considerations which find their roots in a common history that cannot be blind to its past and that rests on its laurels of wellbeing to which, despite the crisis, Europe is still anchored; in this European past, those who are affected by the NIMBY syndrome, are the same peoples who have been migrant and refugee due to killings that have shocked Europe during the years.

Therefore, this refugees’ crisis is an opportunity for Europe to recover its most human face and its capacity to act as a unique social and political body on the international scene, going beyond the internal incomprehension and the many delays in the elaboration of the European project. This is a central moment because it could represent the symptom of the actual presence or absence of a real union among the Member States. Besides economic and technical debates, besides the cold economics made by data and competitions among the States, besides the incomprehension between the Countries and far from the political exploitations and the related easy-to-understand rhetoric, the refugees’ crisis is a resource for Europe and it could represent a momentum of actual unity which is essential to revive the currently foggy process of the European unity construction. European law technicalities can wait because if there is a lack of political and jointly responsible commitment, they are destined to fail. It could be argued that, the East owns a grave responsibility referring to the European frontiers’ closure to refugees. Europe has always demonstrated its trust in the East, in the Balkans, by approaching Moscow through accurate and designed policies. This topic had deep political symbologies, too. Indeed, as well as Greece’s entrance

http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-15-5614_en.htm


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into the Union (considered by some too premature) was mainly dictated by the inconceivability to build the European dream without the democracy’s cradle (whose myth of Europa named the Continent), during the first decennium of 2000, Europe decided to become the engine that would have slowly driven the ex-soviet Countries’ block far from the planned economy and towards a clearly western democracy, rule of law and market. But, even if this operation has been carried out, inner cultural roots within the eastern Countries are difficult to eradicate and so, maybe, these reminiscences could have generated a common hostile attitude by the European East towards the immigrants issue, even if with the due gradations. Europe has set its own sights on the East, which has proven to be quite unreliable, whilst the Mediterranean, which has been so

guiltily disregarded and forgotten, shows its own tragedy and reaffirms its great potential in terms of development, integration and cohesion among the peoples.The idea of Europe itself risks to decay. As President Juncker has said in his speech on the “State of the Union”, «Europe is the baker in Kos who gives away his bread to hungry and weary souls. Europe is the students in Munich and in Passau who bring clothes for the new arrivals at the train station. Europe is the policeman in Austria who welcomes exhausted refugees upon crossing the border. This is the Europe I want to live in».

Nevertheless, coordination problems and political dynamics are now modifying the European structure. Let’s think about the

Migranti a Lampedusa - © European Union, 2015 / Photo: Laporta Mario - Audiovisual Service

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German attitude: Germany has decided to suspend the treaty of Dublin and to develop a precise pro-immigration policy. From a media standpoint, the German Chancellor has surely wiped out the image and the heritage of an insensitive and authoritarian Germany, as labelled during the Greece affair3, and now the Country seems to be driving Europe again, while interpreting a new and positive role. Tendentious interpretations have highlighted the economic returns on this operation. Nevertheless, after yet another shipwreck with 39 victims and an escalation of immigrants that have put the logistic and the economic system of German cities, firstly Munich, to the test, Germany has been forced to take a step back, temporarily suspending Schengen4, with the approval of the same Juncker. This decision highlights the unsustainability of the European situation, characterised by an “escape from responsibility” attitude. The new European scheme presents a block of Countries, such as Hungary, which exploits the German “open doors” to ignore and solve the issue. The Scandinavian voices, and Sweden’s in particular, come together with the German calls for an equal repartition of refugees and immigrants streams. As a matter of fact, internal dreads are spreading within Germany and could bring the compact front of Angela Merkel to implode causing a consequent political crisis that no one in Germany, as well as in Europe would be able to handle.

Above any ideology, there is a need to shine a light on this issue’s proportions. The phenomenon of immigration and political refugees has involved, according to several data, like those reported by the same Junker in his speech, circa 500.000 peoples starting from the beginning of the year, but these data should be contextualised; indeed, as Junker stated:

«There is certainly an important and unprecedented number of refugees coming

3 I am referring to the events about the potential “Grexit”.4 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:l33020&from=EN

to Europe at the moment. However, they still represent just 0.11% of the total EU population. In Lebanon, refugees represent 25% of the population. And this in a country where people have only one fifth of the wealth we enjoy in the European Union».

Dealing with the immigration phenomenon as an economic issue does not mean to devalue the problem or to abandon the needed political optic. An example could be the German attitude towards the Syrian people. The great potentialities of the integration within the German economy come from the certain presence of potential among the migrants who are treated as a resource, especially politically speaking. The impressive German productive system, together with the social economic one, could become the outlet of immigration: an immigrant with a potential could cover job positions that allow a better integration within the social and economic environment, because finding a job and paying taxes, would allow to contribute to the system with a consequent decrease of social deviance and an increase of the integration and cohesion indexes. Thus, economy penetrates within the political discourse, not vice versa.Indeed, if immigration surely shines a light on the European continent’s efforts, with consequent positive repercussions on the EU’s image in the international scene, this same light could also drive negativity due to Europe’s unquestionable lack of internal unity which finds its litmus in the current nonexistence of a unique and united management of this crisis. Europe seems to be crumbling under the slow internal earth tremors, which create a bi-partition: Germany, with other EU Countries such as Italy, France and Greece on one side, and Hungary, Slovakia and United Kingdom on the other.The UK and Germany stay on opposite sides. The UK is also facing internal problems. The relationship between UK and EU has always been tricky and adversarial: the Commonwealth system and the historically verified relationships with the United States, have always projected the UK towards the Atlantic Ocean; the rejection of the Euro has

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:l33020&from=EN


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confirmed its position as “out-of-team”; its alienation from EU affairs is not justified by a new version of the “splendid isolation” which does not exist and the UK continues to be chronically eurosceptic. On the internal side, Great Britain is continuously harmed by nationalist movements, mainly from Scotland, that endlessly jeopardise the decaying of a State which is closer to the United States and to the ancient colonial routes. Moreover, beyond the current refugees’ crisis, Great Britain has always been forced to deal with the qualified and unqualified immigration phenomenon, mostly by itself: a massive number of human resources go to the UK to work in enterprises from all over the world, to study in the excellent British universities and to operate in one of the most important financial places in the world. In this situation, a negative response by Cameron could be understandable, especially because he is constantly pressured by nationalist fronts

and the regularly committed to political juggling activities that are not always easy.By the way, a joint response is needed because of two reasons: first of all, if Europe would fail in building a united management of the refugees’ crisis, an unusually deep political and social fracture would be generated and this would affect both the economic and political sides of the EU; secondly, by failing, Europe would newly demonstrate how the European dream of building a federalist Union would disappear.Europe, all of Europe, should comprehend how the refugees’ crisis is an opportunity. The demographic decrease and the lack of human resources would be relieved: quality immigration, training for human resources for enterprises and sectors that continuously languish could transform the immigration from a problem to a potential resource to exploit in a competitive way. Syncretic phenomena and cross-fertilisations among

Immagine dal sito http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/soteu/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/soteu/index_en.htm

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diverse cultures would allow the European societies to enrich their own cultural legacy in order to face globalisation’s challenges. But, above all, the European Union would demonstrate that its motto works, thanks to the introduction of new vital lymph into its culture, revealing its real and effective capacity to be a Europe united in diversity.The Mediterranean should be an absolute priority in the European cohesion and development policies. It should integrate all of those peoples who escape from conflicts and wars in the region, strengthening the tools and devices of cooperation and development and bringing better life conditions in the equatorial Africa (which is an actual source of desperate escape from hunger, poverty and from an endemic underdevelopment status). The far too easy and failing military adventures in the area have accentuated and made the crisis endemic rather than solving it, as in the case of Libya, roughly “freed” from Gheddafi and then consigned in the hands of a never ending war among tribes and warlords, with areas in the hands of the Islamic State. There is a need to adapt new immigration and integration policies for refugees, by considering them as a great resource to create a peaceful, multi-ethnic, multi-religious Europe, and by

investing on policies, plans and projects to create the conditions towards a permanent and sustainable development, which would respect local identities within the regions of the sub-Saharan, Saharan and equatorial Africa, starting points for great streams of immigrants who risk their life and belongings in deadly trips that are transforming the Mediterranean in an immense liquid cemetery.

WebsitedEurobarometer Standard n. 83 http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb83/eb83_first_en.pdf“State of the Union 2015: Time for Honesty, Unity and Solidarity” by Jean-Claude Juncker President of the European Commissionhttp://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-15-5614_en.htmThe Schengen area and cooperationhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=URISERV:l33020&from=EN

Serbia - © European Union, 2015 / Fonte: AFP-Services, EC - Audiovisual Service / Foto: Bunic Oliver








di MARIANO BONAVOLONTÀ Centro Europe Direct LUPT – Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Direttore del Coordinamento di Settore “Comunicazione, promozione, servizi linguistici, culture management e rapporti con la Rete Europe Direct”

Citizenship, multiculturalism, history

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RISE - RIvISTa InTERnazIOnalE dI STudI EuROpEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSn 2421-583X

Abstract

The European Union plays a central role in the current phenomena of migration which could be considered as a turning point for its institutional life. EU’s internal unity will be also assessed through its behaviour and compactness to face the refugees’ emergency. This short paper deepens the vectors that hold Europe’s internal unity: EU citizenship, which drives new and wider formae mentis, multiculturalism as a common identity mark and the common history of Europe*.

* This article has been submitted on the 14th of September 2015

Un migrante attraversa il confine serbo attraverso i campi di Opatovac, Croazia - © European Union, 2015 / Fonte: AFP-Services, EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Bunic Oliver

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The current phenomena of migration, the consequent refugees’ crisis and the multitude of migrants and their disastrous tragedies, have arisen the attention on the migration streams to Europe. During the last weeks, media coverage and agendas have been completely structured on the refugees’ crisis and new geopolitical scenarios in Europe have been continuously re-depicted, basing on the reaction of the single Countries. This has generated a pressure on European Union’s behaviour and actions to deal with the crisis and it has also provided the Eurosceptics with tools to demonstrate the unfeasibility of a full European integration. This escalation of attention has also placed European Union under the lights of the international community and media being this an occasion for the European Union to act as a whole, as an actual unity; this crisis could be considered as an opportunity for the EU to demonstrate its power and its internal sound unity. But, which are the drivers of this unity?The concept of European citizenship usually generates food for thought due to its unusual and particular conformation. Literature often defines it as an additional citizenship which enriches and does not substitute national citizenship.The Treaty of Maastricht has introduced this concept for the first time through its positivisation and it is quite symbolic that, together with the change from the “Community” to the “Union”, the need to state and define the status of a European citizen has been felt.The current consolidated version of the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union1 consigns to its article n. 20 the clear definition of the citizenship of the Union and it underlines that it «shall be additional and not replace national citizenship».Thus, the Treaty seems very clear and, contemporarily, very watchful, because it places the issue of EU citizenship on the avanscena of the Document but it also underlines the boundaries of its scope. Through this operation, the issue of the

1 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-con-tent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:12012E/TXT&-from=EN

EU citizenship is evidently central in the institutional structure of the EU but the Treaty seems reassuring, too, especially referring to those concerns about the potential subjugations, by this powerful and juridically rare concept, on national citizenships. Indeed, internal national constitutional citizenships are tranquil about the impossibility by EU citizenship to substitute them: they would only be fortified.It could be hypothesized that this uncommon way to feel and to act as a EU citizen has also created a sort of new mind-set about the granitic issue of national citizenship which is, in its theoretical nature, enriched by an additional citizenship and this new commingling surely generates an interesting phenomenon which unhinges the traditional concept of national citizenship by making the issue of citizenship more “porous”.This porous character of the EU citizenship is a novelty but also a needed device in the current multicultural scenario where the European Union operates.Multiculturalism, as well as multilingualism, are key issues to understand and comprehend the complex scenario of the European citizenship.One of the actual and tangible achievements the European Union has reached is, probably, the establishment and/or the improvement of the multicultural forma mentis of EU citizens as actual result of European citizenship from its juridical perspective and form to its natural consequences on the everyday life of each European citizen. The multiculturalism key opens the minds of European citizens who have been more and more “used to” multicultural milieu as long as the European integration was becoming sounder and solider with time.The last Eurobarometer (83)2 confirms that, among the most positive results as perceived by EU citizens, the freedom of movement is the most quoted/chosen3. However, the latest events in Europe have weakened this essential freedom because of the refugees’ crisis. Thus, this “freedom

2 Eurobarometer Standard n. 83 http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb83/eb83_first_en.pdf 3 Ibidem, p. 31

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of movement issue” has become complex, contradictory and difficult to accept, manage and implement.In other words – and this is the core of this paper ground thesis – EU citizenship has undoubtedly created a cascading effect: the objective introduction of a series of positive rights which have generated a valuable effect on the citizens’ mind-sets, that have become more and more accustomed to foreigners.The increase of the possibility of free movement, the habit to use a new common currency, the awareness of the presence of a supranational organisation, have enlarged the EU citizens horizons. It is not a mystery that, among EU Countries, some are more used to deal with immigration (of several kinds) than others; geographers and anthropologists have largely deepened these phenomena, linking them to historical reasons, too, as the ex-colonial migrations that retrace the ancient post-colonial routes. In other countries, on the other side, the increase of movements in and out their borders, has augmented their openness. Populist political movements and parties, spread during the last years against the EU, could also be considered as proof of the perception of (and following reaction to) these new trends.

“United in diversity” is not only a motto, the institutional EU motto, but the concrete comprehension that the acceptance of cultural diversity is a needed must in order to survive in the current globalised world.Obviously, the boost towards the openness and the multiculturalism in Europe and the following creation of a wider mind-set in favour of the acceptance of the xenoi cannot be attributed only to the institutionalisation of the European Union’s citizenship, because of the presence of current globalised and globalising phenomena whose borders actually go beyond the EU frontiers, such as: the consumption behaviour globalisation; a wider mobility and the following reduction of distances; a homogenisation of training, education and jobs skills due to the globalisation of firms, companies and their related job markets; new trends in the cultural consumption habits in the fields of loisir, tourism; and, finally, new information tools and communication networks which have deeply globalised and altered the way people are tuned on current news.As in the case of USA citizenship, which is incomparable to the European Union’s one, also in the latter this elasticity could be an important vector and so cultural diversity could be considered both as precondition

Eurobarometro Standard: il documento integrale è disponibile al link http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/index_en.htm

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and as final result of migration, especially for a continent as Europe which is continuously trying to build new cultural paradigms on its millenary traditions,.Within the European DNA, multiculturalism is an omnipresent issue, the European founding myths and narratives are full of cultural multiplicity as well as the historical roots of Europe are embedded of cultural variety, such as in the case of the cives identities in the Roman Empire. Multiculturalism has also spread during the golden époque of Gran Tours, where cultural diversity was meat as the most powerful way to increase one’s own culture and creativity and so the direct contact with other cultures was foreseen, in the view of the so-called “sentimental education” for the philosophe and artists.The migration DNA resounds in the deep words of Jean-Claude Juncker’s speech “State of the Union 2015: Time for Honesty, Unity and Solidarity”4, held on the 9th of September in Strasbourg and which naturally starts with the issue of refugees: «We Europeans should remember well that Europe is a continent where nearly everyone has at one time been a refugee. Our common history is marked by millions of Europeans fleeing from religious or political persecution, from war, dictatorship, or oppression.

Huguenots fleeing from France in the 17th century.Jews, Sinti, Roma and many others fleeing from Germany during the Nazi horror of the 1930s and 1940s.Spanish republicans fleeing to refugee camps in southern France at the end of the 1930s after their defeat in the Civil War.Hungarian revolutionaries fleeing to Austria after their uprising against communist rule was oppressed by Soviet tanks in 1956.Czech and Slovak citizens seeking exile in other European countries after the oppression of the Prague Spring in 1968.Hundreds and thousands were forced to flee from their homes after the Yugoslav wars.Have we forgotten that there is a reason there are more McDonalds living in the

4 http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-15-5614_en.htm

U.S. than there are in Scotland? That there is a reason the number of O’Neills and Murphys in the U.S. exceeds by far those living in Ireland?Have we forgotten that 20 million people of Polish ancestry live outside Poland, as a result of political and economic emigration after the many border shifts, forced expulsions and resettlements during Poland’s often painful history?Have we really forgotten that after the devastation of the Second World War, 60 million people were refugees in Europe? That as a result of this terrible European experience, a global protection regime – the 1951 Geneva Convention on the status of refugees – was established to grant refuge to those who jumped the walls in Europe to escape from war and totalitarian oppression?We Europeans should know and should never forget why giving refuge and complying with the fundamental right to asylum is so important.I have said in the past that we are too seldom proud of our European heritage and our European project.Yet, in spite of our fragility, our self-perceived weaknesses, today it is Europe that is sought as a place of refuge and exile.It is Europe today that represents a beacon of hope, a haven of stability in the eyes of women and men in the Middle East and in Africa.That is something to be proud of and not something to fear».

It is true that Europe is internally very diversified and its historical backgrounds are specific for each Country; regularly, this issue is also exploited by Eurosceptics who embrace it from the opposite perspective. Heritages and legacies from history often constitute the basis of National cultural mind-sets and several Countries also own inner diversified cultural situations, with particular reference to those Countries whose nationalisation processes have not been very linear during the time.Nevertheless, this wonderful cultural and historical diversification is like a mosaic, where each tessera has a particular and



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specific role but only the total glance of this mosaic masterpiece allows to understand the real unity of Europe which constitutes its actual point of strength. This richness is essentially debtor to a common European history. Europe, as a continent, has a common history, sometimes bloody and cruel, and European Union has to remember that it was born on the still-smoking remains of the II World War by using the principle of the mutual economic convenience to create a device to logically avoid new wars: this could have only happened by being a unity.Thus, by retying these clues, three considerations should be taken into account.First of all, multiculturalism is an identity mark of Europe and the EU.

Secondly, the juridical concept of EU citizenship, its following repercussions on the daily life and the globalised phenomena, surely created a wider formae mentis in Europeans that (even if partially) explain the wonderful manifestations of solidarity carried out by European people during the refugees’ crisis.Finally, and most importantly, European Union has to think about its past and history in order to find the energy and the power to deal with this current crisis which cannot be overlooked and which could also be seen as an opportunity to nourish the more and more felt need to find an actual unity which goes beyond the “mere” economy.

Immagine da Wikimedia - Il Colosseo in un dipinto di Bernardo Bellotto (1721-1780)

https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Tour

di DOMITILLA SARTORIO Royal Holloway University of London

The European Court of Justice: a catalyst for European integration

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RISE - RIvISTa InTERnazIOnalE DI STUDI EUROPEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSn 2421-583X

Abstract

The European Court of Justice (ECJ) is often regarded as a pro-integrative institution. The Court, in fact, has played an important role in binding the Member States (MS) together through its laws. This article investigates in which way the ECJ has served “in the process of European integration” (Alter, 1998: 123). Firstly, the preliminary ruling procedure will be analyzed as it fostered cooperation among national courts and the Common law, creating a reactive legal community bar and possibly, according to Weatherill (1995), a more federal Europe. Important to the enforcement mechanisms are also the principles of supremacy and direct effect, necessary for the creation of a multi-level system that integrates private and public actors. The Court, in fact, created opportunities providing personal incentives for individuals to participate in the construction of the community legal system. The ECJ was able to influence European integration so much because of the lack of obstacles from the Member States. Burley and Mattli (1993) asserted that the ECJ did not face impediments because of its non political nature, or as Weiler (1981) said, owing to its ‘neutral’ role. Alter (1998), on the other hand, developed the thesis of a ‘time horizon difference’ that drives politicians and judges’ distinct aims. Lastly, the so called ‘spill-over’ effect, a neofunctional concept, together with the significance of the ECJ within the context of EU integration process.

Immagine dal profilo Twitter della Corte Europea di Giustizia

https://twitter.com/EUCourtPress/media

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A great majority of theorists acknowledge that the European Court of Justice is nowadays different from Member States’ first project. It was, in fact, established with the mere role of interpreting and controlling legislations while still respecting Member States’ status as sovereign nations (Lenaerts, 1990).

Preliminary ruling procedureOne of the most relevant ECJ tools to pursue European integration is the preliminary ruling procedure. Established to challenge only the acts of the Community law, it then expanded into challenging national laws (Alter, 2001). The Court of Justice not only acquired the power to give preliminary ruling on interpretations concerning the Treaty, but its ruling also became binding on national courts. Supported by Article 177, this procedure brought to the Community legal structure a pattern that is very close to a federal system of law (Weatherill, 1995). Within the context of integration, this appears to be particularly relevant because as stated in the ‘Schwarze Case’1 (Schwarze vs. Einfuhr, 1965), it establishes a special field of judicial cooperation used by national courts to strengthen their role in the national legal hierarchy (Kelemen and Schmidt, 2012). It is duty of the Member State courts to determine, in accordance with their discretion, whether a question of Community law needs to be answered in order to reach a decision (Lenz, 1994). This situation worked as an incentive to the national lower courts to refer cases to the ECJ through the preliminary ruling system (Alter, 2001). The law establishment in the EU institutions has the same effect in all circumstances in all Member States and therefore it ensures that integration will not only last, but also be developed. 1 In the Schwarze case France argued that the Court could not rule on validity when the problem concerned interpretation. The Court held that: “[such strict formal requirement] would be inappropriate to the special field of judicial cooperation under article 177 which requires the national court and the Court of Justice, […], to make direct and complementary contributions to the working out of a decision.” (Schwarze vs. Einfuhr, 1965: 1081).

Another important role of the procedure is that it provides links between the Court and subnational actors, such as private litigants and national courts (Burley and Mattli, 1993). Consequently, the legal community in this way has flourished; since then groups of private practitioners have been visiting the Court and attending educational seminars as they get further encouragement and support from private association such as the International Federation for the European law. Lastly, as governments find it harder to disobey their own courts, compared to international courts, the preliminary procedure ensures that Community law remains uniform in all Member States (Weiler, 1999). Preliminary procedure therefore challenges national law strengthening national courts and enhancing cooperation between nations and the Court and fosters the legal community.

Supremacy and direct effect Of substantial importance for further European integration have been the two basic legal doctrines of the European Court of Justice: supremacy and direct effect. Together with the preliminary ruling procedure, these doctrines are products of the ‘Case-law’, which resulted in the creation of an autonomous legal order that maintained the conditions for integration through an enforcement mechanism (Weatherill, 1995). This has been the case since privates started to have the right to challenge not only EU policies, but also the national law. The principle of supremacy, described as a cornerstone in the European constitutionalization, implies that every Community provisions and directives are superior to the provision of national law in case of a conflict between Community law and national law (Alter, 2001). One of the cases that highlighted EU law supremacy was ‘Factortame I’2 (Regina. vs. Factortame Ltd., 1990). This case is seen as a turning point in the history of the British Parliamentary Sovereignty as Lord Bridge

2 Regina. vs. Factortame Ltd. questioned the validity of a United Kingdom legislation on the basis that it contravened provisions of the EEC Treaty by depriving the applicants of their Community rights to fish in European waters.

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recognised that it is duty of the UK Court to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any direct enforceable rule of the Community law (Craig and De Búrca, 2008). What is more, the ‘Simmenthal SpA Case’ 3 (Amministrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v. Simmenthal SpA, 1978) made EU law retroactive as it reads that national courts have the obligation to apply Community law and must accordingly set aside any provision of national law which may conflict with it.

Further, in 1963 the Court first stated that some EU provisions could have direct effect and this conferred rights on individuals rather than simply imposing duties on

3 Simmenthal S.p.A had imported a shipment of beef for human consumption from France. Doing so, Simmenthal S.p.A was charged a fee of 581,480 Italian Lire for the health and veterinary inspections of the imported meat. Simmenthal S.p.A considered such inspections and charges to be in discord with Community regulations as they hindered the free movement of goods among Community members.

governments (Garrett, Kelemen and Schulz, 1998). Through direct effect the Court created a pro-community constituency of private individuals by giving them a “direct stake in promulgation and implementation of community law” (Burley and Mattli, 1993: 60). Stein (2000) analyzed two types of direct effect: ‘vertical’, which implies obligations towards member states’ governments, and ‘horizontal’, i.e. the obligation of an individual against the other. The power of Case-law is evincible from cases such as ‘Defrenne II’4 (Defrenne vs. Sabena, 1976) in which the ECJ declared that Article 119 had, for example, direct horizontal effect and therefore enforceable not merely between individuals

4 Gabrielle Defrenne was a flight atten-dant for Sabena, Belgian national airline. Under Belgian law, female flight attendants, unlike their male counterparts, were obliged to retire at the age of 40. Because Defrenne had been forced to retire in 1968, she complained that the lower pension violated her right to equal treatment on grounds of gender under article 119 of the Treaty of the European Community (now Article 157 of the TFEU).

Immagine da wikimedia

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and the government, but also between private parties. Direct effect highlighted how individuals are the best means of binding member states to their obligations. Citizens who stand to gain have a constant incentive to “push their governments to live up to paper commitments” (Burley and Mattli, 1993: 62). Integration, therefore, advances as the multilevel system offers an alternative structure for changes to national private and public actors (Kelemen and Schmidt, 2012: 4). Supremacy and direct effect boosted integration to the extent that it was then possible for the ECJ to challenge national law. Also, direct effect created a situation in which private parties had incentives to make legal claims based on their economic rights and other individual rights under European law.

‘Time horizon difference’The metamorphosis through Case-law, as seen, was particularly important for the encouragement of EU integration. The discussion, then, seems to focus on how the ECJ switched its role “from agent to principal” (Josselin and Marciano, 2007: 9) and how it is now able to interpret “existing EC laws in ways that member states had not intended” (Alter, 1998: 123). Burley and Mattli (1993) argued that the main reason behind the ever-increasing power gained by the ECJ was due to the non-political nature of their decisions. “Law functions as both a mask and a shield” (Burley and Mattli, 1993: 72) as it disguises the promotion of one particular set of political objectives against contending objectives in the purely political sphere. In the same way, Weiler (1999) believes that the ‘neutral’ role of the Court prevented it from political attacks. On the other hand, Alter (1998, 2001) brought about an interesting point of view that focuses on the idea of “different time horizons of courts and politicians” (Alter, 1998: 130). This difference of interests among politicians and judges became one of the main reasons for further integration as it left the ECJ free to expand. Politicians, who normally focus only on their mandate’s time span, have shorter time goals. Member states are, in fact, mainly concerned with protecting

national interests during the process of integration, while avoiding “serious conflicts that could derail the common market effort” (Alter, 1998: 130). What is more, as Weiler (1999) pointed out, the advances in EU legal integration happened in a period of time in which the member states were actually worried about the supranational pretentions of the Treaty of Rome. When in the 1970s the governments were trying to obstacle the increasing common market the ECJ was already working too closely with the national legal systems. The ECJ changed the EU legal system, fundamentally undermining Member States’ control over the Court. The non-political nature of the Court’s decisions, together with the ‘different time horizons’ of politicians and judges, has helped pursuing European integration (Alter, 1998). All these aforementioned enforcement tools give the idea of a pro-integrative European Court of Justice. Accordingly, neo-functionalist literature considers the ECJ as highly instrumental to the progress of European integration. Another neuralgic point in the integration process is that, as the neofunctionalists explain how an initial decision made by governments concerning a certain sector can positively affect the authority of institutions into neighbouring areas of policy. For instance as Shaw wrote, an act dealing with coal and steel could lead to “a general Treaty covering all economic sectors […]” (1996: 12). This process is know as the ‘spill-over effect’. For this reason, the ECJ is not only the backbone of the juridical integration but also played an important role in the development of political and economic unification. “If politics is power, will and authority, then law is an expression of these features in particular form” (Green, 1969: 19). According to Green (1969), political integration can only take place in connection and within the framework of law as political integration really means legal integration. But the neofunctional point of view also gives importance to the fact that Member States conceived the ECJ as a supranational body that could have led their project further. It was with this premise only that the Court was able to then transform and gain more power through Case-law.

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European integration has been driven in the last decades by several factors. Nonetheless, the central role of the ECJ in this process cannot be denied. The preliminary ruling procedure supported integration by ensuring cooperation among national courts and the ECJ. This meant a more federal system that challenged national laws and worked towards a more integrated legal community bar. Case-law has represented a turning point for the development of supremacy and direct effect. Through them, the Court supports individual participation in the system in a way that advances community goals; they created a pro-community constituency of private individuals by giving them a direct stake in promulgation and implementation of community law (Alter, 2001). What is more, its ‘legal character’ and its ‘neutral’ identity have allowed the ECJ to gain such an important catalyst role. Member States, at the same time, underestimated the power the Court had been acquiring, a power far greater than the one conferred to it by the Treaties themselves. All these factors have allowed the ECJ to foster European integration.

Bibiography Alter, K. J. (1998) “Who Are the ‘Masters of the Treaty’ ?: European Governments and the European Court of Justice.” International Organization. Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 121-47. Alter, K. J. (2001) Establishing the Supremacy of European Law-Making of an International Rule of Law in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Burley, A., and Mattli, W. (1993) “Europe Before the Court: A Political Theory of Legal Integration.” International Organization. Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 41-76.Case 16/65, Firma G. Schwarze v. Einfuhr- und Vorratsstelle für Getreide und Futtermittel, 1965.

Case 43/75, Gabrielle Defrenne v. Société anonyme belge de navigation aérienne Sabena, 1976.

Case 106/77, Amministrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v. Simmenthal SpA,1978.

Case 213/89, R. v. Secretary of State for Transport ex porte Factortame Ltd. And Others, 1990.Craig, P., and De Bùrca, G. (2008) EU Law: Text, Cases, and Materials. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garrett, G., Kelemen D., and Schulz H. (1998) “The European Court of Justice, National Governments, and the Legal Integration in the European Union.” International Organization. Vol.52, No.1, pp. 149-76.Green, A. W. (1969) Political integration by jurisprudence. The work of the Court of Justice of the European Communities in European Political Integration. Amsterdam: A. W. Sijthoff – Leyden.Josselin, J. M., and Marciano, A. (2007) “How the Court Made a Federation of the EU.” The Review of International Organizations. Vol. 2, No.1, pp. 59-75. Kelemen, D., and Schmidt, S. (2012) “Introduction - the European Court of Justice and Legal Integration: Perpetual Momentum?” Journal of European Public Policy. Vol. 1, No.19, pp. 1-7.Lenaerts, K. (1990) ‘Constitutionalism and the many facets of federalism.’ American Journal of Comparative Law.Vol. 38, pp. 205-64. Lenz, C. (1994) ‘The Role and Mechanism of the Preliminary Ruling Procedure.’ Fordham International Law Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 389-409.

Shaw, J. (1996) Law of the EU. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.. Stein, E. (2000) Thoughts from a Bridge: A Retrospective of Writings on New Europe and American Federalism. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Weatherill, S. (1995) Law and Integration in the EU. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Weiler, J. (1981) ‘The Community System: The Dual Character of Supernationalism.’ Yearbook of European Law. Vol.1, pp. 510-34.


Law.Vol





di DONATELLA DE SILVA (1), FERDINANDO MANCINI (2) (1) Dipartimento di Strutture per l’Ingegneria e l’Architettura - Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II (2) Dipartimento di Giurisprudenza - Seconda Università di Napoli

Fire events in airport, maritime, underground and railway stations: fire engineering and liability

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RISE - RIvISTA INTERNAZIONALE dI STudI EuROpEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSN 2421-583X

Abstract

The activity of fire investigation, based on a back-analysis process, which is a reconstruction through the identification of the qualifying fire signs, allows the reconstruction of the etiology of the events in order to ascertain also possible responsibilities. This reconstructive activity requires surgery of professional engineering that, through simulations and analysis, the study of evidences found on the fire site, of its materials and of its function, reconstructs the possible or probable scenarios of the accident. This activity requires also the legal expert who identify the elements that take on significant importance in the reconstruction and accusation of events. One possible way of liability of the station managing authority for the damage to the passenger during his permanence may be the liability for social contact, because there is not an identification of the person providing the station services and because there is a social contact between the passenger and the station managing authority.

© European Union, 2006 / Source: EC - Audiovisual Service ,Agence France-Presse (AFP)

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Principles: the fire scenario and the reconstruction of the eventsIn the reconstruction of the fire, its trigger and its development, the study of the fire semiotic assumes a fundamental rule. This study consists in the preparation of the activities set, that, immediately after the event and on its scene, are designed to define, to collect, to document and to study the elements useful to the reconstruction of the facts in order to determine the causes (those direct and indirect ones, those coming and remote) and the development mode. This activity, called fire investigation, is based on a process of back-analysis, or rather a process of reconstruction posthumously, that, thanks to the identification of the qualifying signs of the fire, emerging on the scene of the accident, allows the reconstruction of the etiology of events. Evidently this analysis, in a problematic approach to the event that is a prelude to a judicial or extrajudicial result that sees opposing the two involved sides, assumes importance to the identification of potential liability and namely, of obligations compensatory damages, for creating mechanisms of economic rebalancing to compensate the losses suffered by the damaged parties. This reconstruction activity needs a contribution of a two-faced technical, or rather two different professionalism: the engineering and the legal. The engineer, through simulations and analysis, the study of evidences found on the fire site and of the materials, reconstructs the possible or probable accident scenarios. The intervention of the jurist allows to identify the elements that assume significant importance in the reconstruction of events. Thus, keeping in mind also the reason for the presence of those who have been affected by the incident, the kind of liability that invests those involved can be determined. This liability may be contractual (specifically attributable to a single kind of contract) or non-contractual. Besides the evaluation of the evidence on the fire scene and other aspects described previously, the investigative reconstruction is characterized by a methodology of reverse-engineering that analyzes all the life periods of the structure affected by a fire, from design, creation and

use of it. In particular, this technique tends to focus on any negligence, inexperience and carelessness happened during the design phase, during the control / supervision of fire design, during the realization of active and passive protection system, during the routine maintenance to verify and certify the functionality and efficiency of the protections systems. Identified the cause or causes of the fire, the assessment of a possible fault or misconduct of the involved person, namely the imputability of these cause /causes becomes relevant. This analysis is essential in any legal approach to the happening, that tends to identify any civil or criminal liability. This identification, gradually, supposes the emergence of the facts that occur on the scene of the fire, their study and their significance for the initiation and development of the event, the study of the structure and of safety systems, the study of the etiology of the facts and, therefore, the determination of the causes. The fire’s cause is the element that links the happening with all its consequences to the structure. Only a precise identification of the etiology of events allows to approach or to fit what is the truth about the facts and what will be the legal truth, that will find success in the lawsuit.

Fire safety engineering and fire investigationThe prevention of damage due to fire and the mitigation of its effects, with reference to the safety of human life and the protection of property, constitutes the subject field of the Fire Safety Engineering [1]. It is a multi-discipline about the application of the principles of science and engineering, laws and judgments of experts, based on scientific evaluation of the phenomenon of combustion and the effects of the fire, the reaction and behavior of people to fire , aimed at the protection of people, of property and environment from the destructive effects of the fire. There are also other two disciplines of fire prevention:-Fire Protection Engineering, which includes the aspects of active and passive protection needed to provide adequate levels of fire protection for the building and for its content;-Structural Fire Engineering, which relates to

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the aspects of passive protection, analyzing the thermal effects of the fire on buildings, in order to design the structure to achieve adequate capacity for resistance and control of the fire expansion.The approach of the Fire Safety Engineering, based on a detailed analysis of the fire phenomenon, with adoption of natural fire curves, which combine sophisticated calculation procedures (advanced methods), is becoming the most widespread in various technical fields, and so inclined science to be able to be used also in the context of “Fire Investigation” in order to reconstruct what happened after a fire in a given location.

From a detailed observation, through the simulation methods, that are based on data and evidence collected, on the “signs” that the fire left, a credible scenario can be supposed, tending to reproduce the event with the reconstruction of combustion processes, the fire development and movement of smoke. In this way, the configuration of the combustible materials, the effects of ventilation, the structure, the impact of any passive / active protection systems and, of course, the ignition source, can be described a posteriori. All of these can be simulated with software, changing and combining the simulated cases also with

© European Union, 2006 / Source: AFP-Services ,EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Huguen Phlippe

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techniques of probabilistic analysis (event tree-Figure 1). An approach of back analysis can be followed for the identification of fire scenarios most believable, reaching bestfit ,in terms of layout post-fire, between the simulated event and the happened one

Figure 1- Event tree for fire scenarios definition - FRA[2].

The simulation is oriented to the reconstruction of the fire event (burning time, temperature, height of the flames, the height of the layer of smoke in the compartment, the movement of the combustion products, etc.) and it may help to understand the nature of the fire. Therefore a profound knowledge of structural and chemical engineering is required, together with a figure who knows the legal aspects, in order to identify these subjects, as mentioned above.

The case of fire in the stationsIn order to limit the risks from fires, the buildings must be designed and built to ensure the strength and stability and to limit the spread of fire and smoke, as required by fire regulations (CEE, Interpretative Document No. 2: Safety in case of fire, 1993). The performance of fire resistance requirements for structures are currently modulated, in the Eurocode (EN 1993-1-2), in different performance levels in order to ensure that the possible structural damage has not unacceptable consequences for the safety of occupants and rescue teams.The rules NTC 2008 [3] indicate the process

for verifying the structures in case of fire, in accordance with the requirements of the Eurocode, and they refer to the rules issued by the Home Office in 2007[4] [5], for technical and administrative formalities, and to DPR 151/2011, for activities subject to the controls of the Fire Department. Such activities would include the airports, railway stations and maritime stations; all are recognized as activities of “C” class, or high-risk activities. In the current regulatory framework, the prescriptive and performance based approaches are provided. The prescriptive based approach establishes a series of rules and requirements to guarantee a predetermined resistance with immediacy and simplicity of calculation (tabular data, simple analytical models, certified products and systems); moreover, the thermo-mechanical analysis refer to the standard fire curve (ISO834) (EN 1363-2). The performance based approach consists of more detailed analysis of the fire, considering natural fire curves, which combine more sophisticated calculation (advanced methods) for structural models. The designer, for example for the airports, can follow a specific vertical rule: “Administrative order of 17 July 2014: Technical regulation for fire prevention design, construction and operation of the stations with covered accessible area of more than 5,000 m2” or he can choose a more sophisticated approach using the horizontal rule. The category of high risk to which the airports belong, is justified by the complexity of such buildings. Indeed, airport means the airport infrastructure, including the adjacent areas of commercial service, of refreshment and control of the passengers, area for permanence, security checks, boarding, disembarkation and transit of passengers and their luggage. This difficulty requires a particular attention to exit routes, to the complexity of high and non-uniform index of crowding and to the presence of different activities from fire prevention point of view. This complexity of fire design must be assessed also during the reconstruction of events after a fire. One of the possibilities to easily reconstruct the events is to apply a

Evento 1 Evento 2 Evento 3 Evento 4 Evento n

SIP1

SIP2,1,1,1

SI SIP2,1,1 P2,1,1,2,1

NOP2,1,1,2

SI NOP2,1 P2,1,1,2,1

SIP2,1,2,1

NOP2,1,2 NO

P2,1,2,2

IGNIZIONE

SIP2,2,1,1

SI SIP2,2,1 P2,2,1,2,1

NO NOP2 P2,2,1,2

NOP2,2 NO

P2,1,2,2

SIP2,2,2,1

NOP2,2,2 NO

P2,2,2,2Scenario 7b

Scenario 6b

Scenario 7a

Scenario 5

Scenario 6a

Scenario 4a

Scenario 4b

Scenario 3a

Scenario 3b

Scenario 1

Scenario 2

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probabilistic approach [6], starting from the observation on the fire site and to model the possible scenarios with advanced software. The first step consists of knowing the time of structure designing and, therefore, the rules and regulations (not only technical) that existed, in order to orient more easily on the structural features of the building.The kind of structure, the structural materials, the openings and all the technical features that could affect the fire can be identified from the original project and maintenance documentations. The second step consist of observation of “signs” left by the fire (semiotics), supported by the specific rule NFPA 921 [7], which defines the signs of the fire as a visible or measurable physical effects that remain after the event. At this stage, the configuration of all the signs and traces, which also help to suppose the kind of combustible material and the mode of heat transfer, must be studied and analyzed. After the observation one should take samples (or other specific procedures) that allows to reveal the presence of any combustible liquids. After the assumption of one or more possible fire, they should be modelled through CFD software (computational fluid dynamics) [8][9] which allows a reliable simulation of physical phenomena (Figure 2).

Figure 2 – Sample output of advanced software.

The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) is developed by the NIST [9] and it simulates the fire and its effects. FDS allows to model the fire from a database of standard materials, but it allows the introduction of new materials defined according to the physical-

chemical characteristics and according to the experimental data (revealed in the first survey phase post fire). The fire dynamics is simulated according to the parameters that characterize each material, with its features of flammability and of combustion or reaction to fire. Indeed, thanks to this data, FDS solves numerically the equations that model the combustion reaction and transport phenomena, taking into account dynamically mutual interactions between processes. The software is able to calculate, and consequently provide as output data, with an appropriate set-up, the values of all the variables, scalar and vector, calculated in each cell of the domain, useful for the understanding of the phenomena and of the analysis of the effects (concentrations of chemical species, distributions of temperature, pressure, gas velocity, smoke, visibility, ...).Therefore this methodology allows to simulate with high reliability the fire scenarios, supporting investigators and experts in the reconstruction of the happening and also in identifying the liability of the fire event [10].

The civil liability of the station manager: contractual (from social contact) or non-contractual?After identifying the cause of the fire and the liability of the station manager authority, it is necessary to establish if his liability to the damaged person is contractual or not and if this liability will be different in the even that the damaged person has been struck during a public service at the same station.The determination of the kind of liability affects the dynamics of the action for compensation for damages suffered and the different distribution of the burden of proof between the damaged person and presumed guilty party. Moreover the kind of liability affects the periods of limitation of this liability, which are different in the context of contractual and non-contractual liability. Specifically, in the field of contractual liability prescription is ten-years (Art. 2946 cc) while is five-years in non-contractual liability field (art. 2947 c.c.). About the burden of proof, in the field of contractual liability, the damaged person must prove the existence of the

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contract, the occurrence of the damage and, in accordance with art. 1218 c.c., he/she must enclose only the inaccuracy of fulfilment or the missed fulfilment of the other contracting party (theoretically capable of producing the damage claimed) and not his guilt or the seriousness of the missed fulfilment. The other contracting party, however, in order to be exempted from liability, will be required to demonstrate the absence of any inaccuracy or failure. In the field of non-contractual liability the evidence of the damaged party invests all the elements that integrate the non-contractual tort (art. 2043 c.c.). These elements are: the existence of the damage, the injury that concerns an absolute right of the individual protected erga omnes, the causal link between action / omission and damage, as well as the subjective chargeability (as negligence or willful misconduct) in chief of manager of the action / omission that caused the fire.In this case, the provisions of art. 1681 c.c., prescribing the carrier’s liability for claims which strike the traveler for loss or damage of things that he brings with him (with all the appropriate measures to avoid the damage) does not appear relevant. This law does not refer to damages that may arise in the prodromal stages or after the travel in which the passenger remains inside the station. This law may be applied to the case of damages arising during the period of transport and to those that emerge during the preparatory operations and ancillary transport, in which there is a causal relationship between harmful event and travel and, therefore, between harmful event and vehicle of locomotion [11]. The title of liability of the managing authority station may vary with the status of the damaged party and, in particular, with the reason for his presence at the station. The damaged person may be a passenger transits within the station, a companion of the traveler, a station worker (depending on the station authority or employee of an airline), the staff of public security or public emergency not employee of the station authority, but it carries out its institutional service at the station.About the rail transport, the Supreme Court

declared that the accident occurred in a passenger using the services of the railway station (in that case it was the damage suffered during the exit from the station, by slipping on a catwalk crossing the tracks covered with a layer of ice) can’t be included in the consequences of the exercise of activity station according with art. 1 Law no. 754/1977, in particular this event can not be reduced under the contractual liability of the rail carrier as the event has not occurred for the nature of the service, or for the characteristics of the transport means used. The Court applied the art. 2051 c.c. because the walkway is part of the furnishings of the station, which is part of the railway appurtenances for use of the service and subject to a duty of custody, supervision and maintenance of the railways so that they do not adversely affected users. Consequently, the State Railways are responsible for damages suffered in the residence or in transit through the station, according with art. 2051 c.c., or by way of liability for the things in custody; there is no liability in the event of occurrence of the accident to unforeseeable circumstances[12].About the air transport there is the art. 17 of the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules for International Air transport with Final Act and resolutions made at Montreal in May 28 of 1999 (ratified by Italy with Law 12/2004). According to this law, the carrier is liable for damage resulting from the death or injury suffered by a passenger because the event which caused the death or injury took place on board of the airplane or during one of the operations of embarking or landing. The carrier is also liable for damage caused by the destruction, loss or damage to checked baggage, because the event which caused the destruction, loss or damage took place on board of the airplane or during any period during which the carrier was in the charge checked baggage.About this topic, the Supreme Court held that the liability of the air carrier ends when operations ancillary to the object of the contract of carriage are arranged so as to be removed from its sphere of interference and they present themselves as a service that it must provide to the passenger,

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because of the administrative organization of the traffic at the airport. This service can not be considered to be inherent in the operation of boarding aviation nor the person who provides it can be considered as a charge carrier. The service is provided with equipment and airport staff and it is provided by a person different from the carrier, that is not chosen by him and that is no longer at his interference. In conclusion, the carrier is not liable for damages incurred during the permanence in the station (in this case the damage occurred during the transport from the terminal to the aircraft[13]) but the authority managing of the airport will respond on the basis of non-contractual liability, because there is no contractual link with the damaged party.Generalizing, the title of liability of the station authority managing, to which a incompetence and / or negligence in the commission of the acts is attributable, appears to be that of non-contractual liability. This is true whether the damaged person was a passenger in the contingency to undertake a journey, or to return by the same route, transit inside the station, whether he is a companion not traveler. As an alternative to classification as non-contractual liability, the studies on the liability of the doctor in health field and on the liability of the tutors in schools against, respectively, of patients for damages that occur in the performance of health care, diagnostics and curative, and students for the damage suffered by them during their permanence in the school, could be used in the liability of the station authority managing. About this topic, the contractual relationship between the parties appears to be based on the only social contact because the relationship that generates between who makes the performance (doctor and preceptor) and who receives it (patient and student), would exclude all negotiation formalization. Also identifying material executor of the work is done on the basis of the employment relationship of the teacher and doctor, respectively, with the education institute or the hospital authority. So both the liability of the hospital, managing institution of a public health service, and the liability of the employee doctor, have contractual

character, professional exactly. The first one because the unfulfilled obligation stems from a contract of indefinite duration of health care or of hospital with the acceptance of the patient to the hospital for admission or for an office visit; the second one because it is based on social contact between the doctor and the patient hospitalized; this social contact relates the conclusion of the contract and the rules of various kinds conducts, to protect the interests emerged, or however exposed to risk. Similarly, between the school and the student, with his admission to the school, a bond is negotiating with the obligation of the institution to oversee the security and safety of the student at a time when he enjoys the school performance; between teacher and student is established, for social contact, a legal relationship in which the teacher assumes both an obligation to provide education and an obligation of protection and supervision to prevent the student from damage [14]. Also the liability for damages incurred during the permanence at the station can be traced, at least about the damages suffered by the passenger, as contractual liability from social contact. However, even in this field there are prerequisites identified for contractual liability from social contact. The person, who performs services related to passengers’ permanence in the station before or after the travel and other services related to the travel, is not identified on the basis of free choice of the passenger and there is, in the performance of those services, a social contact between traveler and station authority managing. Such contact is additional to the transport contract, that legitimates passenger to use the station services. These assertions about the liability of station authority managing can be also applied if the fire has affected workers at the station (station authority managing employee or airline employee) or public security staff or emergency staff , that is not station authority managing dependent and that plays its institutional service inside the station. However, in order to verify if the offense, attributed to station authority managing or

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to the Administration employer, is a source of contractual or non-contractual liability the features of the offense are important. Particularly the liability is non-contractual when there is a behaviour of station authority managing or of Administration detrimental both to the majority of citizens both to its own employees, constituting, in this case, the employment relationship a chance of damage. Instead, the liability is contractual if the detrimental behaviour of station authority managing or of the Administration can’t occur against persons who are not employees and if there is a violation of specific obligations about the protection of workers (Art. 2087 c.c.). In this last case, the injustice is manifest in violation of employment rules[15].

References

[1]. ISO/TR 13387: Fire safety engineering, 1999. [2]. ISO/DS 16732:“Fire safety engineering – Guidance on fire risk assessment”,2010[3]. NTC2008 - Norme tecniche per le costruzioni - D.M. 14 Gennaio 2008[4]. D.M.Int. 09/03/2007, Prestazioni di resistenza al fuoco delle costruzioni nelle attività soggette al controllo del Corpo nazionale dei vigili del fuoco, GU n. 74 of 29/03/2007.[5]. D.M.Int.9/05/2007: “Direttive per l’attuazione dell’approccio ingegneristico alla sicurezza antincendio”, GU n. 117 del 22/05/2007.[6]. E. Nigro, A. Bilotta, D. Asprone, F. Jalayer, A. Prota, G. Manfredi (2014). Probabilistic approach for failure assessment of steel structures in fire by means of plastic limit analysis. Fire Safety Journal, ISSN: 0379-7112, vol.68, 16-29.[7]. NFPA 921: guide for fire and explosion investigations, 2014.[8]. Smoke Transport. NIST Special Publication 1041r1. December 2012 Revision[9]. McGrattan K., McDermott R., Hostikka S., Floyd J., 2010, Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 5). User’s Guide, NIST Special

Publication 1019-5, US Government Printing Office, Washington, USA.[10]. Ana M. Lacasta, Laia Haurie, Eduard Caimel. Collaboration with the fire brigades of catalonia to define new protocols to collect data from a fire. Fire Brigade Reports and Investigations (COST 2013).[11]. Cass. civ., Sez. III, 17/07/2003, n. 11198, in Mass. Giur. It., 2003, in Arch. Civ., 2004, 689, in Arch. Giur. Circolaz., 2004, 164, in Arch. Giur. Circolaz., 2004, 665, in Danno e Resp., 2003, 12, 1187; in judgment, the Judges of the Supreme Court, examining the event of an injury sustained in subway transit, identified as ancillary or preparatory the transport operations, for example, the upward or downward from the train, the loading of luggage, the ticket printing that occurs inside the vehicle, the opening and closing of doors or windows, the moving inside the vehicle, the accommodation to places to sit, but not the transit on the access stairs to the subway station.[12]. Cass. civ., Sez. III, 01/07/2005, n. 14091, in Dir. Trasporti, 2006, 3, 897, in Nuova Giur. Civ., 2006, 10, 1076.[13]. Cass. civ., Sez. III, 25/09/2001, n. 12015, in Giust. Civ., 2002, I, 401, in Giust. Civ., 2002, I, 2847[14]. Cfr., liability in the heal field, Cass. civ., S.U., 11 gennaio 2008, n. 577, in Giurisprudenza italiana, 2008, 7, 1653, in Danno e responsabilità, 2008, 7, 788; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 19 aprile 2006, n. 9085; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 22 gennaio 1999, n. 589, in Giustizia civile, 1999, I, in Responsabilità civile e Previdenza, 1999, in Contratti, 1999, 11, 999; Cass. civ., 02 dicembre 1998, n. 12233, in Danno e Responsabilità, 1999, 7, 777; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 11 aprile 1995, n. 4152, in Mass. Giur. It., 1995; Cass. civ., 27 maggio 1993, n. 5939, in Mass. Giur. It., 1993; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 01 marzo 1988, n. 2144, in Giur. It., 1989, I, 1, 300; Cass. civ., 26 novembre 2013, n. 26358; liability in school field, Cass. civ., Sez. III, 26/04/2010, n. 9906, in Danno e Resp., 2011, 4, 393; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 03/03/2010, n. 5067; Cass. civ., Sez. III, 21/03/2007, n. 8067, in Danno e Resp., 2007, 7, 811. [15]. Cass. civ., Sez. Unite, 27/01/2011, n. 1875.

D.M.Int

D.M.Int

di FILOMENA DE SILVA, FRANCESCO SILVESTRI Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile Edile e Ambientale –Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II

Predictions on the seismic response of monumental towers on soft soil

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Abstract After the damages to the cultural heritage caused by the most recent earthquakes, the protection of ancient buildings is an urgent and relevant theme in Europe, especially in the Mediterranean countries, characterized by high seismic hazard. The fine tuning of the seismic protection requires analyses on refined models in order to catch the dynamic behaviour of the soil–foundation– structure system in a lifelike way. Neglecting soil structure interaction effects, in fact, may be conservative or not, depending on the structural pattern and the nature of the subsoil. Focusing on the historical towers, the most symbolic building among monuments, a method is here proposed for preliminary predictions on the variation of natural period and damping ratio due to the dynamic interaction between soil and structure. The simplified approach is then applied to three cases of monumental towers on soft soil, located in three European cities, characterized by high seismic hazard.

© European Union, 2007 / Source: EC - Audiovisual Service ,Agence France-Presse (AFP) / Photo: Morin Olivier

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1. EUROPEAN SEISMIC HAZARDThe European Seismic Hazard map, reported in Figure 1, has been realized in the framework of the European project SHARE, http://www.share-eu.org, (Woessner et al., 2015). The map illustrates the peak ground acceleration (PGA) on a rigid rock outcrop, corresponding to a return period of 475 years (i.e. probability of exceedance equal to 10% in 50 years). According to the map, the highest level of the seismic hazard is estimated along the North Anatolian Fault Zone, reaching value of PGA>0.75g in the Aegean and in the Marmara Sea. Similar hazard values characterize Iceland along the plate boundary of the Mid-Atlantic ridge transform faults. PGA>0.50g correspond to the Appennines in Italy and the Cephalonia fault zone from the Western Greece until Albania. The Balkan and Mediterranean countries such as Italy, Turkey, Eastern

Greece, Bulgaria and Romania show significant level of seismic hazard, reaching PGA>0.35 g. Relevant hazard with PGA around 0.25 g, characterizes Brussels in Belgium, Lisbon in Portugal and some areas near Budapest in Hungary and along the Pyrenees mountain. Earthquakes may impact on the European society and strongly affect the lives of European citizens, as occurred in the 1999 in Izmit (Turkey), when a strong earthquake of local magnitude ML 7.6 killed 17 000 people. More recently in Italy a 5.9 magnitude shock in L’Aquila (2009) killed more than 300 people and destroyed part of the historical centre. The last European earthquake occurred in 2012 in Emilia (Italy) when, due to a 5.8 magnitude event, 5000 people were displaced and a lot of industrial buildings damaged, causing severe economic losses.

Asinelli

Leukos Purgos

Galata Kulesi

Figure 1: European Seismic Hazard Map (http://www.share-eu.org).

http://www.share-eu.org

http://www.share-eu.org

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2. MONUMENTAL TOWERS AND SEISMIC HAZARDTowers are important expressions of monumental heritage in Europe, especially in Italy which boasts the largest cultural heritage of the world. Civic or bell towers, lighthouses, dovecotes, dungeons, watchtowers and clock towers are generally identified as towers, due to their common monolithic shape with a small base, but their function is very different. The height and the consequent structural texture generally depend on building function and are sometimes related to building age, type of materials and social-economical context of the area (de Silva et al., 2015). Civic and bell towers are generally very tall, especially after the 17th century Catholic Reformation. Lighthouses and watchtowers along the coast are usually squat and high just enough that nothing could obstruct the view from and to the sea. Clock towers and dovecotes are rather tall, depending on the importance of the municipality and of the house they belong to, respectively. Different heights may be found also among structures with the same function, such as dungeons. Before the XV century, the military technique, based on the safety of the fortresses, reckon on tall dungeons

from which stones, arrows and boiling oil were thrown against the enemies. In the 15th century, with the spread of gunpowder, rather tall structures became an easier target and most of the forts were rebuilt shorter and larger. Depending on the slenderness ratio, H/B, of the height, H, to the base width, B, of the structure, towers can be distinguished in: - very slender towers, H/B>6: civic and

bell towers; - slender towers, 3<H/B<6: clock towers,

dovecotes and dungeons before the 15th century; - squat towers, H/B<3: dungeons built

after the 15th century, lighthouses and watch towers.Due to their high seismic vulnerability and exposure, sometimes combined with a really hazardous location, the monumental towers are more affected by seismic risk than common buildings. The seismic structural damage of squat towers may be strongly affected by shear mechanisms; on the other hand, for many tall towers the most recent strong-motion earthquakes occurred in Italy caused collapse or severe damages due to large structural deformations related to flexural (Figures 2a) or even torsional vibration modes.

a) b)

Figure 2: (a) Finale d’Emilia clock tower destroyed by the Emilia earthquake (2012, ML =5.8) and (b) San Bernardino bell tower, damaged by L’Aquila earthquake (2009, ML =5.9).

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With increasing height, the reduction in section may, indeed, promote the inception of secondary vibration modes, causing damage to the empty part of the structure; for example, the bell cell (Figure 2b) is often a very vulnerable element due both to its architectonic configuration and its location on the top subjected to amplified acceleration. The symbolic role played by most of the tower

increases their exposure and the emergency in their seismic protection, as highlighted by the changes in the Italian skyline, after the numerous damages to the towers caused by the Emilia earthquake. Even though out from the European borders, the collapse of the Dharahara tower (Figure 3) recognized by UNESCO in Katmandu, due to the Nepal earthquake in April 2015 (magnitude 7.8), is equally serious.

3. SEISMIC SOIL-TOWER INTERACTION Due to their seismic vulnerability and exposure, sometimes combined with a really hazardous location, monuments are more affected by seismic risk than common buildings. The higher structural performances, required in order to preserve monuments by earthquakes, may imply strong mitigation interventions, which bring down their artistic value. Thus, catching the dynamic behavior of the system in a realistic way becomes important to realize seismic protections which represent a compromise between safe fruition and conservation of the historical heritage.The dynamic behavior of a real building may be affected by the interaction among soil, foundation and structure, usually neglected in the conventional design.

Neglecting soil-structure interaction effects may be conservative or not, depending on the structural pattern and the nature of the subsoil. It is widely shown that, if the subsoil is softer with respect to the structure, the fundamental period of the soil - structure system increases and part of the seismic energy is radiated through the subsoil, so the flexural displacement and the related structural damping are reduced (Veletsos and Meek, 1974). Although the structural motion is reduced with respect to the oundation, the absolute overall structural displacement is increased due to subsoil deformability. The consequences may be dangerous for several historical towers of Italian cultural heritage, since tall buildings can suffer excessive structural displacements

a) b)

Figure 3: Dahara tower in Katmandu, before (a) and after (b) the Nepal earthquake (April 2015, ML=7.8).

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under strong-motion earthquakes; on the other hand, the conventional fixed-base predictions can yield inadequate interpretations of the actual behavior.In order to study the interaction effects, the structure can be assimilated to a single degree of freedom (SDOF) oscillator (Figure 4), with mass m, height H and

flexural stiffness k. The dynamic response is therefore characterized by the fixed-base period, T0, and damping ratio, ξ. Soil deformability is modeled through a combination of springs and dashpots with stiffness ku , kq

, and damping cu, cq, for the

translational and the rotational degrees of freedom, respectively (Gazetas, 1991).

The simplified approach proposed by Veletsos and Meek (1974) has been applied in this study to different cases of hypothetical prismatic towers on springs, in order to calculate the modified period T* and damping ratio ξ*. The schemes, reported in Figure 4b and c, have been defined by realistic combinations of structural slenderness and soil properties (de Silva et al., 2014). Three masonry towers, respectively 9 m, 29 m and 68 m tall, resting on soft to stiff soil (200 m/s <

VS < 800 m/s) have been analyzed, varying the width of the foundations from 10 m to 16 m. The unit weight of the structure has been set equal to 11 kN/m3, which is a typical value for a soft rock masonry. Some representative results are reported in Figures 5a-b, showing respectively the soil-structure period T* and the damping ratio x*, normalized to the fixed base values, plotted versus the soil-tower stiffness ratio, σ, evaluated on the basis of the shear wave velocity of the subsoil (Figure 5c).

Figure 4: Single degree of freedom on springs, equivalent to the soil-foundation-stuctural system (a); combinations of structural slenderness and soil properties for the parametric analyses (b); structural models (c).

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The plots are drawn for three slenderness ratios, corresponding to very slender, slender and squat structure (§ 2). As expected, whatever the slenderness ratio, the modified period T* is higher than the fixed-base period T0. The equivalent damping ratio x* is lower than x for slender or very slender towers, while it is higher for squat structures due to the contribution of the radiation damping; the effects decay as the parameter σ increases, i.e. increasing soil stiffness. The deviation from the fixed-base solution is significant (i.e. T*/T0 and x*/x are different from unity in

Figures 5a-b) for very slender structures on deformable soils (σ<20, i.e. VS<400m/s), for slender towers on soft to stiff soils (σ<15, i.e. VS<600m/s) and for squat towers even on stiff soils (σ<10, i.e. VS<800m/s).

4. APPLICATION OF THE PROPOSED METHOD TO SOME EUROPEAN TOWERThe three cases of the squat Leukos Purgos (Figure 6a) in Thessaloniki (Greece), the slender Galata Kulesi (Figure 6b) in Istanbul (Turkey) and the very slender Asinelli tower (Figure 6c) in Bologna (Italy) are here

a)

b)

c)

Figure 5: Variation with the stiffness ratio, σ, of the structural period (a) and damping ratio (b), both normalized to the fixed base value; dependency of σ on the shear wave velocity VS (c).

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considered, as illustrative examples of towers located in high seismic hazardous places. The Leukos Purgos in Thessaloniki (Greece) was a watch tower of the city wall, completed in 1535. Converted in a prison in the last two centuries, today the tower hosts the historical museum of the city. The tower is 33 m tall and 22 m wide (H/B = 1.3), laying on clayey sand covered by filling materials (Anastasiadis et al., 2010). To quickly evaluate the effect of soil-structure interaction, the graphs in Figure 5 may be adopted, assuming the depth of the soil volume involved in the dynamic soil structure interaction equal to the half wide of the tower. For squat tower and a shear wave velocity VS = 248 m/s, resulting from the mean value in the first 12 m of the measured VS profile (Anastasiadis et al., 2010), Figure 5c provides a value of σ=3.2 to which an equivalent period T*=1.27T0 (Figure 5a) and an increased equivalent damping ratio ξ*=2ξ (Figure 5b)

are associated (circular symbol in Figure 5).Built in 1348 by the Genoese settlers on a fractured sandstone formation, the Galata Kulesi in Istanbul (Turkey) is 66.9 m tall and about 16.5 m wide (H/B=4.0). Built as a part of a fortress, it became a watch tower in the XVIII century and today is the most panoramic place of the city. Considering a value of VS = 175 m/s, compatible with the mechanical properties measured in the same formation, during the design of the Northen Marmaramotorway Odayeri, the corresponding value of σ is 3.5. On the curve corresponding to a slender structure, for σ = 3.5, an increased equivalent period T*=1.52T0 and a decreased equivalent damping ratio ξ*=0.42ξ are associated (rhomboidal symbol in Figure 5).Built since 1110 to 1684, the Asinelli tower is 97 m tall and 8.15 m wide (H/B=12), laying on loose sand and soft silty clay. By assuming VS = 200 m/s , the parameter σ = 10 is obtained, to which an increased equivalent period T*=1.20T0

a) b) c)

Figure 6: Leukos Purgos in Thessaloniki, Greece (a); Galata Kulesi in Istanbul, Turkey (b); Asinelli tower in Bologna, Italy (c).

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and a decreased equivalent damping ratio ξ*=0.57ξ are associated (triangular symbol in Figure 5). As shown by the above examples, the dynamic response of the towers may be really different accounting or neglecting their interaction with the subsoil.

CONCLUSIONThe fine tuning of the seismic protection of monuments requires accurate analyses, possibly accounting for the dynamic interaction between soil, foundation and structure. Focusing on the monumental towers, a simplified approach has been proposed for preliminary estimations of the equivalent period, T*, and the damping coefficient, ξ*, of the whole soil-structure system approximated with an equivalent oscillator. As expected, the period T* increases with respect to the fixed-base value. The damping ratio ξ* decreases for slender or very slender towers, while increases for squat structures due to the radiation damping. The proposed approach may be useful for the preliminary design of the intervention on monuments against earthquakes, to predict the importance of the interaction effects. The damages caused by recent European earthquakes to the cultural heritage highlight the emergency in protecting monumental towers and buildings from the seismic extreme events, to let them watch over the safety of the related population in the future as they did in the past.

ReferencesAnastadis A., Raptakis D., Pitilakis K., 2001. Thessaloniki’s detailed microzoning: subsurface structures as basis for site response analysis. Pure and applied geophysic, 158 pp. 2597-2633.de Silva F., Ceroni F., Sica S., Pecce M. R., Silvestri F., 2015. Effects of soil-foundation-structure interaction on the seismic behaviour of monumental towers: the case study of the Carmine Bell Tower in Naples. Rivista Italiana di Geotecnica, special edition

“Il ruolo della geotecnica nella salvaguardia dei monumenti e dei siti storici”, July - September 2015.de Silva F., Di Laora R., Sica S., Silvestri F., 2014. Influenza delle caratteristiche di terreno e struttura sull’interazione in campo dinamico. Proceedings of the Incontro Annuale Ricercatori Geotecnica 2014, Chieti. 14 - 16 July 2014.Gazetas G., 1991. Formulas and charts for impedances of surface and embedded foundations. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 117, 1363-1381.Project of the Northen Marmaramotorway Odayeri, Geotechnical report by Astaldi, Ictas, Emai, Protek, 2014. Veletsos A.S., Meek J.W., 1974. Dynamic behaviour of building-foundation systems. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics. Vol.3., 121-138.Woessner J., Laurentiu D., Giardini D., Crowley H., Cotton F.,· Grünthal G., Valensise G., Arvidsson R.,· Basili R., Demircioglu M.B., Hiemer S.,· Meletti C., · Musson R. W., · Rovida A. N., · Sesetyan K. ·Stucchi M., · The SHARE Consortium, 2015. The 2013 European Seismic Hazard Model: key component and results. Bulletine of Earthquake Engineering. Pubblished d with open access at Springerlink.com.

Springerlink.com

di AMELIA BANDINI Centro Europe Direct LUPT Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Co-Direttore del Coordinamento di Settore “Politiche linguistiche, glottodidattica e Multilinguismo” Dipartimento di Scienze Politiche – Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II

Uniti nella diversità. La giornata europea delle lingue.

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ERISE - RIvIStA INtERNAzIoNALE dI StUdI EURopEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSN 2421-583X

Abstract Aim of this contribution, inspired by the celebration of the “ European Day of Languages”, is to reflect on multilingualism, plurilingualism and language education. The main question is why preservation and promotion of cultural diversity are key-aspects for EU policies and why individual plurilingualism has a significant influence on the evolution of an European citizenship. Taking into account that the sense of belonging to Europe and the acceptance of an European identity is dependent on the ability to interact and communicate with other Europeans using the full range of one’s linguistic repertoire, but also the language of the interlocutor, the contribution explore also the relationship between migration and language education.

© European Parliament: foto da Flickr /Pietro Naj-Oleari

https://www.flickr.com/photos/european_parliament/3389786116/


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Il presente contributo, che trae spunto dalla celebrazione della “Giornata Europea delle Lingue”, intende proporre alcune riflessioni sul tema multilinguismo, plurilinguismo e formazione linguistica. La Giornata europea delle lingue, che fu istituita nel 2001 in occasione dell’Anno Europeo delle Lingue per celebrare la diversità linguistica, ricorre ogni anno il 26 settembre ed è un’iniziativa del Consiglio d’Europa1. La finalità che si intende perseguire con questa ricorrenza è quella di richiamare l’attenzione sulla diversità linguistica e culturale dell’Europa, da intendersi come ricchezza che deve essere mantenuta e incoraggiata, e conseguentemente sulla necessità di accrescere la gamma di lingue apprese nel corso della vita. Per capire le motivazioni che spingono il Consiglio d’Europa a festeggiare attraverso una serie di iniziative - ogni anno da 11 anni - la “Giornata Europea delle Lingue”, ma anche perché preservando le differenze all’interno del nostro continente multilingue e multiculturale ed implementando il plurilinguismo saremo tutti più uniti, è necessario partire da alcune premesse.Per prima cosa occorre fare chiarezza sui termini. Il multilinguismo è una caratteristica legata ad un dato territorio - è la varietà di lingue che co-esistono in un particolare contesto- il plurilinguismo, invece, è una caratteristica dell’individuo, in quanto indica l’abilità individuale di usare più lingue per scopi comunicativi e di partecipazione all’interazione interculturale.Nell’Unione Europea sono riconosciute 24 lingue ufficiali – quelle parlate negli Stati Membri- e circa 60 lingue regionali/minoritarie, oltre a molte altre parlate da persone provenienti da altre parti del mondo. In tutto il continente europeo si

1 Il Consiglio d’Europa, con sede a Strasburgo, è la principale organizzazione di difesa dei diritti umani del continente. Include 47 Stati membri, tra cui i 28 membri dell’Unio-ne europea. Tutti gli Stati membri del Consiglio d’Europa sono segnatari della Convenzione eu-ropea dei diritti dell’uomo, un trattato concepito per proteggere i diritti umani, la democrazia e lo stato di diritto.

parlano oltre 200 lingue europee, esso è quindi, senza dubbio, un continente multilingue e multiculturale. La questione del multilinguismo come risorsa e punto di forza è stata ed è al centro delle politiche europee. Nel 2008, su iniziativa dell’allora presidente della Commissione europea José Manuel Durão Barroso e del commissario per il multilinguismo Leonard Orban, un gruppo di personalità del mondo della cultura fu chiamato a prestare la sua consulenza sul contributo del plurilinguismo al dialogo interculturale e alla comprensione reciproca dei cittadini nell’Unione europea2. I componenti del Gruppo, partendo dalla considerazione che ogni lingua è il prodotto di una esperienza storica specifica ed è portatrice della memoria, del patrimonio letterario e delle esperienze peculiari di una comunità, individuarono proprio nelle lingue il fondamento irrinunciabile dell’identità culturale dei popoli: Non può aderire pienamente alla costruzione europea chi non ha la sensazione che la propria cultura, e in primo luogo la propria lingua, sia pienamente rispettata3. Oltre a ciò sottolinearono l’opportunità di preferire relazioni bilaterali –piuttosto che multilaterali- tra i paesi dell’Unione europea, finalizzate al commercio, agli scambi culturali, allo sviluppo di politiche comuni, nelle quali l’uso delle lingue dei due popoli avrebbe dovuto prevalere su quello di una terza lingua, in modo tale che ciascuno avesse la possibilità di esprimersi in una lingua padroneggiata perfettamente. Per questa ragione si dichiararono contrari all’adozione di una unica lingua di comunicazione internazionale, peraltro spesso adoperata

2 Cfr. Una sfida salutare. Come la molte-plicità delle lingue potrebbe rafforzare l’Europa, (2008), proposte delGruppo degli intellettuali per il dialogo intercul-turale costituito su iniziativa della Commissio-ne europea, scaricabile gratuitamente dal sito http://bookshop.europa.eu/it/una-sfida-salu-tare-come-la-molteplicit-delle-lingue-potreb-be-rafforzare-l-europa-pbNC3008147/ (consul-tato il 7 settembre 2015)3 Ibid. p.12

http://bookshop.europa.eu/it/una-sfida-salutare-come-la-molteplicit-delle-lingue-potrebbe-rafforzare-l-europa-pbNC3008147/



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in modo approssimativo,45 e suggerirono che, accanto a questa, ognuno approfondisse una seconda lingua – lingua adottiva- diventandone un conoscitore esperto. Questa politica avrebbe evitato la decadenza delle varie lingue nazionali, espressioni di diverse culture, e avrebbe favorito la comprensione e l’accettazione reciproca fra popoli diversi: […] la conoscenza di una lingua personale adottiva e lo stretto contatto con l’universo dei suoi locutori dovrebbero favorire una visione

4 Si vedano a questo proposito le interes-santi considerazioni del prof. David Graddol in Enlish next. Why global English may mean the end of ‘English as a Foreign Language, (2006), scaricabile dal sito http://englishagenda.briti-shcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf (consultato l’11 settembre 2015).5 Cfr. Bandini, A. (2010) Competenze plu-rilinguistiche in ambito universitario: l’Inglese non basta!, in “Plurilinguismo e integrazione: abilità e competenze linguistiche in una società multietnica” a cura di M.Cennamo, A. Lamarra, A.R. Tamponi, L Cavaliere, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, pp. 101-114.

del mondo più aperta agli altri e rafforzare il senso d’appartenenza all’Europa; non a scapito dell’appartenenza al paese natale o alla cultura d’origine, ma accanto a quest’appartenenza, dato che, nelle sue relazioni con i locutori della sua lingua personale adottiva, il cittadino europeo sarebbe naturalmente portato a far loro conoscere il suo paese e la sua cultura6. Preservare la diversità linguistica e culturale europea incrementando l’apprendimento formale ed informale delle lingue straniere è quindi un obbiettivo che si colloca perfettamente all’interno del motto “uniti nella diversità”.Per queste ragioni in tutta Europa 800 milioni di europei, rappresentati dal Consiglio d’Europa con 47 stati membri, sono incoraggiati a imparare più lingue, ad ogni età, dentro e fuori dalla scuola. Nella convinzione che la diversità linguistica sia uno strumento per ottenere una migliore comprensione interculturale e un elemento

6 Una sfida salutare. Come la molteplicità delle lingue potrebbe rafforzare l’Europa, (2008). p. 14

© European Parliament: foto da Flickr - Parlamento Europeo

http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf



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chiave nel ricco patrimonio culturale del nostro continente, il Consiglio d’Europa sostiene il pluralismo in tutta Europa, mettendo a disposizione programmi e mezzi per incrementare le opportunità di dialogo fra cittadini appartenenti a Comunità Linguistiche diverse (dialogo interculturale) anche attraverso la promozione dell’apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue. Fra gli obiettivi del Consiglio spicca quindi la difesa della diversità culturale e quindi anche linguistica, per favorire la quale vengono promosse azioni volte alla formazione degli insegnanti, alla protezione delle minoranze e alla coesione sociale. Nell’ambito di queste azioni si colloca l’istituzione della “Giornata Europea delle Lingue” le cui finalità generali sono:1. Promuovere preservare e favorire le ricche diversità linguistiche e culturali dell’Europa;2. Incrementare il plurilinguismo e la comprensione interculturale attraverso campagne volte a sensibilizzare il pubblico sull’importanza dell’apprendimento delle lingue e della diversificazione della gamma di lingue imparate;3. Incoraggiare l’apprendimento delle lingue durante tutto l’arco della vita dentro e fuori la scuola per motivi di studio, per esigenze professionali, ai fini della mobilità o per piacere personale e di scambi.Fra le azioni sostenute dalla Commissione Europea al fine di raggiungere i suddetti obiettivi figurano due indagini statistiche i cui risultati, pubblicati nel 20127, non sono particolarmente confortanti. Solo il 54% degli intervistati si è dichiarato in grado di sostenere una conversazione in una lingua diversa dalla propria lingua madre e tale lingua era nel 38% dei casi l’inglese. In 19 dei 25 Stati membri (esclusi il Regno Unito e l’Irlanda) la lingua straniera più diffusa era l’inglese, conseguentemente il 67% degli intervistati riteneva che possedere competenze di inglese fosse indispensabile per il completamento della

7 cfr. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf e http://ec.euro-pa.eu/youth/dashboard/index_en.htm (consul-tati l’11 settembre 2015)

propria formazione, ma solo il 14% di loro si era dedicato all’apprendimento di una lingua straniera nei due anni precedenti. Fra i giovani solo il 50% era impegnato nell’apprendimento di almeno due lingue straniere. Dalle inchieste sembrava emergere inoltre un atteggiamento ambiguo per quanto riguarda il riconoscimento dell’Europa come continente multilingue da un lato e l’impegno verso il plurilinguismo dall’altro: se per un verso infatti l’81% del campione asseriva che le lingue europee sono tutte egualmente importanti ed ogni stato membro avrebbe il diritto di conservare la propria lingua nazionale, dall’altro il 69% degli intervistati auspicava un futuro nel quale tutti i cittadini europei fossero competenti in una lingua comune e le istituzioni europee, conseguentemente, potessero adottare una sola lingua per comunicare con i propri cittadini (53%).Eppure, proprio in un momento di massima crisi del mercato del lavoro quale quello nel quale viviamo, apprendere più di una lingua assume una importanza particolare, come viene efficacemente sottolineato nel sito internet dedicato alla Giornata Europea 2015: Non ci sono mai state molte opportunità di lavoro o studio in un altro paese europeo - ma la mancanza di competenze linguistiche impedisce a molti di approfittare di queste possibilità. La globalizzazione e le nuove esigenze delle imprese fanno capire che i cittadini hanno sempre più bisogno di conoscere lingue straniere per lavorare efficacemente nei rispettivi paesi. L’inglese da solo non basta più. In Europa si parlano numerosissime lingue - ci sono oltre 200 lingue europee e molte altre ancora che sono parlate dai cittadini la cui famiglia d’origine proviene da altri continenti. Questa è una risorsa importante per essere riconosciuto, utile e stimato.8

La competenza nelle lingue straniere è una competenza che tocca trasversalmente molti temi centrali nel dibattito europeo. Non è un caso, probabilmente, che, nell’ambito dell’ “Anno Europeo per lo Sviluppo”, il tema del mese di settembre - nel quale

8 Cfr http://edl.ecml.at/Home/WhyaEuropeanDayofLanguages/tabid/1763/Default.aspx (consultato l’11 settembre 2015).

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf

http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf

http://ec.europa.eu/youth/dashboard/index_en.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/youth/dashboard/index_en.htm

http://edl.ecml.at/Home/WhyaEuropeanDayofLanguages/tabid/1763/Default.aspx



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ricorre la “Giornata europea delle Lingue”- sia “demografia e flussi migratori”. La gestione dei flussi migratori, ma soprattutto l’integrazione dei migranti nei paesi di accoglienza, investe infatti indubbiamente il tema dell’acquisizione di competenze linguistiche9.Se infatti da un punto di vista meramente politico il processo di integrazione di un individuo nella società di accoglienza può considerarsi concluso con l’ottenimento

9 Si veda a questo proposito il contributo di Breidbach S. (2003) Plurilingualism, democratic citizenship in Europe and the role of English, Language Policy Division DG IV – Directorate of School, Out-of-School and Higher Education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, scaricabile da: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/BreidbachEN.pdf (consultato il 15 settembre 2015).

della cittadinanza10, da un punto di vista, invece, sociologico esso ha un iter più complesso, nel quale l’acquisizione di competenze linguistiche assume un ruolo di particolare importanza.Secondo il sociologo tedesco Esser (2001), ad esempio, l’acquisizione della lingua del paese di accoglienza è alla base della integrazione dell’individuo nel sistema sociale – Sozialintegration –, che si sviluppa in 4 fasi. Le prime due, in stretta relazione fra loro, sono la Kulturation [acculturazione] nella quale si acquisiscono le competenze necessarie (linguistiche, culturali, sociali) alla interazione – e la Platzierung, che ha luogo 10 Cfr. Grote M. (2014), Integrationspolitische Positionen im Deutschen Bundestag am Beispiel der Staatsbürgerschaftsdebatte, in “Migremus Arbeitspapiere n.1/2014“, Universität Bremen, Bremen.

© European Union, 2015 / Source: AFP-Services, EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Schiffmann Günter

http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/BreidbachEN.pdf

http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/BreidbachEN.pdf

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quando gli individui, grazie alla avvenuta Kulturation, riescono ad occupare posizioni sociali, ottengono cioè la cittadinanza, esercitano i diritti politici, occupano posizioni lavorative. La terza dimensione, in stretta correlazione con le prime due, è quella della Interaktion nella quale gli individui costruiscono relazioni sociali fra loro (amicizie, matrimoni, etc.) mentre la quarta è la Identification nella quale gli individui si identificano con i valori della società di accoglienza, sia dal punto di vista dei valori collettivi, che da quello dei valori politici, giuridici e sociali11. Anche la relazione finale del Gruppo sul Multilinguismo, precedentemente citata, si occupò del rapporto fra integrazione dei migranti e acquisizione/conservazione delle competenze linguistiche. Per gli immigrati la lingua personale adottiva dovrebbe essere, in generale, quella del paese in cui hanno scelto di stabilirsi. Una conoscenza approfondita della lingua nazionale e della cultura che essa veicola è un elemento indispensabile per integrarsi nella società d’accoglienza, per partecipare alla sua vita economica, sociale, intellettuale, artistica e politica. È anche un fattore d’adesione degli immigrati all’Europa nel suo insieme, al suo progetto comunitario, al suo patrimonio culturale e ai suoi valori fondamentali. Parallelamente e, si potrebbe dire, reciprocamente, è essenziale che i paesi europei comprendano quanto è importante, per gli immigrati e i figli di immigrati, preservare la conoscenza della loro lingua d’origine 12. Le competenze linguistiche sono quindi fondamentali per la affermazione dell’individuo in una società multilingue, il potenziamento del plurilinguismo rende infatti possibile l’esercizio della cittadinanza attiva intesa come esercizio dei diritti fondamentali del cittadino nel mondo globale, quali il diritto di parola e

11 Cfr. Esser H., (2001) Integration und ethnische Schichtung, in“Arbeitspapiere“ Nr. 40. Mannheim: Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung.12 Una sfida salutare. Come la molteplicità delle lingue potrebbe rafforzare l’Europa, (2008) pp.19-20.

quello di partecipazione13. Implementare il plurilinguismo è quindi una sfida della società globale che deve coinvolgere tutti gli Stati sovrani i quali in tal modo si apriranno ad altre culture preservando contemporaneamente la propria. Occorre, in altre parole, investire in formazione linguistica, creando occasioni sia di studio ed approfondimento della propria lingua madre14, che delle lingue straniere, puntando certamente sui più giovani, senza però dimenticare la “formazione permanente” coloro cioè che non sono più giovanissimi e che sono già attivi nel mondo del lavoro. Se infatti il plurilinguismo è una competenza chiave nella ricerca del lavoro ed in questo senso occorre ponderare attentamente la scelta della propria “seconda lingua” –la lingua di adozione-, ancora di più è importante per le imprese formare il proprio personale al plurilinguismo perché questo darà la possibilità di ampliare e migliorare i propri rapporti con partner di altri paesi.

Bibliografia

Bandini, A., (2010) Competenze plurilinguistiche in ambito universitario: l’Inglese non basta!, in “Plurilinguismo e integrazione: abilità e competenze linguistiche in una società multietnica” a cura di M.Cennamo, A. Lamarra, A.R. Tamponi, L Cavaliere, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, pp. 101-114.Breidbach S., (2003) Plurilingualism, democratic citizenship in Europe and the role of English, Language Policy Division DG IV – Directorate of School, Out-of-School and Higher Education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg.13 Cfr. Tamponi, A (2010) Dalla multicultura all’intercultura: la classe plurilingue e l’italiano L2. L’output come indicatore del processo di apprendimento attivato, in “Plurilinguismo e integrazione: abilità e competenze linguistiche in una società multietnica” a cura di M.Cennamo, A. Lamarra, A.R. Tamponi, L Cavaliere, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, pp.489-503.14 Si segnala a tal proposito la costituzio-ne del “portale della lingua italiana nel mondo” su iniziativa della prof. Barbara Turchetta, delegata MIUR ad un tavolo di lavoro del Ministero degli Affari Esteri.

M.Cennamo

M.Cennamo

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EssEr H., (2001) IntegratIon und ethnIsche schIchtung, in “Arbeitspapiere“ Nr. 40. Mannheim: Mannheimer Zentrum für Europäische Sozialforschung.Graddol D., (2006) Enlish next. Why global English may mean the end of ‘English as a Foreign Language, British Council, London.Grote M., (2014), Integrationspolitische Positionen im Deutschen Bundestag am Beispiel der Staatsbürgerschaftsdebatte, in “Migremus Arbeitspapiere n.1/2014“,

Universität Bremen, Bremen.Tamponi A., (2010) Dalla multicultura all’intercultura: la classe plurilingue e l’italiano L2. L’output come indicatore del processo di apprendimento attivato, in “Plurilinguismo e integrazione: abilità e competenze linguistiche in una società multietnica” a cura di M.Cennamo, A. Lamarra, A.R. Tamponi, L Cavaliere, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli, pp.489-503.

© European Union, 2006 / Source: AFP-Services, EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Roessler Boris

M.Cennamo

di MICOL FORTE, FRANCESCO NACCHIA Dottorandi in “Eurolinguaggi e terminologie specialistiche (XXX ciclo)” presso l’Università degli Studi di Napoli “Parthenope”.

Vegan or Vegetarian? An investigation into the current usage of the terms in English, French, Spanish and Italian.

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Abstract This paper aims to verify the successfulness of the definitions of the terms “vegan” and “vegetarian” in English, French, Spanish and Italian in conveying their authentic meanings. In brief, after a first research step aimed at the identification of the etymology and the original meanings of the terms in object, a comparison of their lexical definitions in three dictionaries per each language will be provided with the purpose of verifying the degree of lexicalization in each language and shedding light on the distinctive semantic traits of each term. As a matter of fact, there is still a lack of awareness about the differences between these eating practices and the related sub-categories, though, several medical and food related magazines and websites have provided their own insight into the distinctive features of the two concepts. The interest in this issue stems from the positive response these eating practices are receiving lately. Veganism and vegetarianism have emerged as alternatives to “ordinary” eating habits, especially because of an increased awareness of animal rights and the acceptance of theories considering meat as unhealthy for humans. As a matter of fact, according to the 2014 “Meat Atlas of the Friends of the Earth” and the “Heinrich Böll Foundation” there are over 375 million of vegetarians worldwide, 74 million in Europe.1

1 ExpoNet - Expo 2015: http://magazine.expo2015.org/cs/Exponet/en/lifestyle/375-mil-lion-vegetarians-worldwide.-all-the-motives-for-a-green-lifestyle-

© European Union, 2012 / Source: EC - DG AGRI ,EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Camilleri Flavia

http://magazine.expo2015.org/cs/Exponet/en/lifestyle/375

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1. Introduction: defining “vegetarian” and “vegan”.Before getting to the real point it is crucial to look at the etymology of the terms in object, first of all, “vegetarian” around which origins three hypothesises exist. The term was probably already in use before 1847, year when The Vegetarian Society claim they created the word from the Latin “vegetus” – which meaning is “whole, sound, fresh, or lively”. According to this theory, the first usage of the word did not make any direct reference to a fruit and vegetable-exclusive diet, instead, to its benefits on the human body. A second view is that the Society put the Latin suffix “-arian” at the end of the word vegetable. Finally, a third theory advocates the idea that the term stems from the combination of an irregular form of the word “vegetable” and “agrarian” – meaning “of the land”. However, as it has already been said, the term was circulating even before the Society appropriated it and claimed themselves its paternity. As a matter of fact, The Oxford English Dictionary cites two quotations pre-dating 18471 – precisely, 1839 – by people associated with the “Alcott House Concordium” (Ham Common), a school founded by the mystic James Pierrepont Greaves2.In the 1830s the word denoted someone who did not eat animal products at all nor made use of animal derived products in any aspects of life. Thus, originally, the concept of vegetarianism was the same as that of veganism born in 1944 when the term was coined by the Vegan Society. Anyway, when The Vegetarian Society was established in 1847, the definition of the new-coined word “vegetarian” did not encompass the exclusion of eggs and dairy products from the diet, so as to accommodate those associates who used to ate those products. Heating debates and discussions about whether vegetarians could eat animal derived products or not marked the first half of the XX century, as witnessed by the Vegetarian Messenger editor’s statement

1 http://www.etymonline.com/2 https://www.vegansociety.com/si-tes/default/files/uploads/Ripened%20by%20human%20determination.pdf

in 1935: “the question as to whether dairy products should be used by vegetarians becomes more pressing year by year”.3

The internal discrepancy between dairy vegetarians and non-dairy vegetarians led to an inevitable separation of the latter, who founded the Vegan society in 1944. Donald Watson, together with other non-dairy vegetarians discussed a new non-dairy vegetarian diet and lifestyle that needed a word to be described. They finally came up with the word “vegan”, containing the first three and last two letters of “vegetarian”, after rejecting other designations.4 However it was only five years later when Leslie J. Cross, vice president of the Vegan Society realized that a definition of the new diet lacked that “veganism” was defined as:

the principle of the emancipation of animals from exploitation by man […] to seek an end to the use of animals by man for food, commodities, work, hunting, vivisection, and by all other uses involving exploitation of animal life by man. (Leslie J. Cross, 1949)

Then, in 1951, Cross explained clearly what a vegan diet includes on The Vegetarian No.1 Vol.5: “fruits, nuts, vegetables, grains and other wholesome non-animal products”, and excludes “flesh, fish, fowl, eggs, honey and animal milk and its derivatives”. When the Vegan society turned into registered charity in 1979, a comprehensive definition of “veganism” was provided in the Memorandum and Articles of Association:

A philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.

2. Lexical, semantic and etymological analysis

3 Leneman Leah. 1999. “No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain, 1909-1944”. Society and Animals VO.7 NO.34 “Dairyban”, “vitan”, “benevore”, “sani-vore” and “beaumangeur” were some of the proposals.

http://www.etymonline.com

https://www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/uploads/Ripened

https://www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/uploads/Ripened

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After having explored the dynamics of origin and evolution of the two terms, now a comparison of their lexical definitions in three dictionaries per each language (English, French, Spanish and Italian) will be provided, with the purpose of verifying the

degree of lexicalization in each language and shedding light on the distinctive semantic traits of each term.

* Collins1 Merriam-Webster2 Cambridge3

Vegan

noun. A person who refrains from using any animal product whatever for food, clothing, or any other purpose.

noun. A person who does not eat any food that comes from animals and who often also does not use animal products (such as leather).Full Definition. A strict vegetarian who consumes no animal food or dairy products and who abstains from using animal products (as leather).

noun. A person who does not eat or use any animal products, such as meat, fish, eggs, cheese, or leather.

Adjective. Not eating, using, or including any animal products.

Veganism noun. The adherence to a vegan diet. See vegan. -

Vegetarian

noun. A person who advocates or practices vegetarianism.

adjective 1. Relating to, advocating, or practising vegetarianism.adjective 2. (cookery) strictly, consisting of vegetables and fruit only, but usually including milk, cheese, eggs, etc.

noun. A person who does not eat meat.Full Definition. 1. One who believes in or practices vegetarianism. 2. Herbivore

adjective 1. Of or relating to vegetariansadjective 2. Consisting wholly of vegetables, fruits, grains, nuts, and sometimes eggs or dairy product.

noun. A person who does not eat meat for health or religious reasons or because they want to avoid being cruel to animals.

adjective. Not eating or containing meat or fish

* Note in Tabella a fondo articolo

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* Collins1 Merriam-Webster2 Cambridge3

Vegetarianism

noun. The principle or practice of excluding all meat and fish, and sometimes, in the case of vegans, all animal products (such as eggs, cheese, etc.) from one’s diet.

noun. The theory or practice of living on a vegetarian diet.

See vegetarian.

In general, the three dictionaries make the essential distinctive traits of the two terms clear to the reader, even with some inaccuracies. “Vegan” definitions are not restricted to nutrition and make reference to its ethic value as well, as recommended by the founders of the Vegan society. “Vegetarian” is well defined in the Collins dictionary, while in the Merriam-Webster dictionary “herbivore” is suggested as synonym. This is quite inaccurate, since, as it has been shown above, “vegetarian”

underwent a semantic shift at the rise of non-dairy-vegetarians - that named themselves “vegan” – and ended up referring to dairy vegetarians. It is useful to add that, these days, “vegetarian” and “vegetarianism” are also treated as an hyperonym of all the sub-categories derived from it. Finally, the Cambridge dictionary includes some reasons that may push people to embrace vegetarianism – namely, religion and health – but does not stress their openness to dairy products and eggs.

2.2 Table 2: French terms

* Larousse4Trésor de la Langue Française (TLFi)5 Petit Robert6

Vegan - - -Végan(e) - - -Véganisme - - -

Végétalien(ne)adjectif et nom.Relatif au végétalisme ; adepte du végétalisme

Sous « végétalisme »

subst. et adj.a) Subst. et adj. (Personne) qui est adepte du végétalisme.b) Adj. Relatif au végétalisme, qui s’en inspire.

adj. et n. – 1891 ◊ de végétalisme ◊ Propre au végétalisme. ◊ (personne) Qui ne mange que des produits d’origine végétale.

Végétalisteadjectif et nomRelatif au végétalisme ; adepte du végétalisme

- -


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Végétalismenom masculinRégime alimentaire excluant tout aliment d’origine animale.

subst. masc.Principe diététique recommandant l’usage alimentaire des végétaux, à l’exclusion de la viande, du poisson et de tout produit d’origine animale.Étymologie : 1836 « conversion en végétal » ; 1890 « régime alimentaire consistant dans l’usage exclusif de végétaux ». Dérivé de végétal ; suffixe -isme.

n.m. – 1890 ◊ de végétal ◊ RARE Régime alimentaire excluant tous les aliments qui ne proviennent pas du règne végétal. -> végétarisme.

Végétarien (ne)

adjectif et nomRelatif au végétarisme ; adepte du végétarisme.

A Subst. et adj. (Personne) qui est adepte du végétarisme, qui se nourrit de végétaux et de produits d’origine animale à l’exclusion de la chair. Adj. [En parlant d’un animal] Qui se nourrit de végétaux.B. − Adjectif1. a) [En parlant de la nourriture, d’un repas] Qui se compose de végétaux et de produits d’origine animale, à l’exclusion de la viande et du poisson.b) [En parlant d’un lieu de restauration] Qui sert des repas inspirés du végétarisme. 2. [En parlant d’une chose abstraite] Relatif au végétarisme.Étymologie : 1. adj. 1878 ; 2. subst. 1875. Emprunté à l’anglais vegetarian, par substitution de la finale -arian.

adj. et n. – 1873 ◊ anglais vegetarian (1842) ◊ Propre au végétarisme. ◊ Qui ne mange pas la chair des animaux (-> végétarisme). – n. Un végétarien, une végétarienne. Végétariens et végétaliens.


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Végétarianisme - - -

Végétarisme

nom masculinRégime alimentaire excluant toute chair animale (viande, poisson), mais qui admet en général la consommation d’aliments d’origine animale comme les œufs, le lait et les produits laitiers (fromage, yaourts).

subst. masc. Principe diététique recommandant l’usage alimentaire des végétaux, excluant la viande et le poisson mais tolérant les produits d’origine animale, à la différence du végétalisme.Étymologie : 1877 végétarianisme ;1878 végétarisme. Formé sur végétarien, par substitution du suffixe -isme à -ien, après avoir d’abord été emprunté à l’anglais vegetarianism.

n.m. – 1878 ; végétarianisme 1877 ◊ de végétarien, d’après l’anglais ◊ Doctrine diététique qui exclut de l’alimentation la viande, mais permet certains produits du règne animal (lait, beurre, œufs, miel) à la différence du végétalisme.

In a lexicological perspective, from the table above it can be seen that the anglicism “vegan” and French adapted borrowing “végan(e)” and “véganisme” do not appear in any of the three dictionaries taken into account. However, these expressions are frequently adopted to denote those embracing veganism in current French usage. In theory, “végane” is an epicene term, though French advocates of linguistic feminism are struggling to oppose the feminine “végane” to the masculine “végan”. Moreover, while “végétalisme” and “végétalien(ne)” are lexicalized in all the dictionaries in question, Larousse is the only dictionary which displays “végétaliste”. Finally, the term “végétarianisme” – from which the term “végétarisme” arose according to Trésor de la langue française and Petit Robert – is no longer in use, and,

as a consequence, no longer lexicalized in the dictionaries. Etymologically, the table highlights that, for Trésor, “végétalisme” and “végétalien(ne)” have originated in the XIX century from the term “végétal”; “végétarien(ne)” is a borrowing from the English “vegetarian” which suffix changed from “-arian” to “-arien”, while “végétarisme” derives from “végétarianisme” (1877) that was in turn coined on “végétarien”.From a semantic point of view, the term “végétalisme” refers to a diet excluding any kind of animal derived products and encouraging vegetables’ consumption, whereas “végétarisme” refers to an eating practice recommending vegetables and animal derived products’ while condemning meat consumption.

2.3 Table 3: Spanish termsCLAVE7 RAE8 DUE9

Vegano/na

adj./s.Referido a una persona vegetariana, que no toma huevos, leche o productos derivados de ellos.

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CLAVE7 RAE8 DUE9

Veganismo - -

s. m.Seguimiento de una dieta vegetariana estricta, con exclusión de todas las proteínas de origen animal.

Vegetalista -

1. adj. Dicho de una persona: Que practica el vegetalismo Usado también como sustantivo.

adj. (poco usado)Vegetariano.

Vegetalismo -

1. m. Régimen alimenticio estrictamente vegetal que excluye todos los productos de animal, vivo o muerto.

-

Vegetariano/na

adjetivo.1 Del vegetarianismo o relacionado con este régimen alimenticio.adjetivo o sustantivo.2 Partidario o practicante del vegetarianismo.

(Del francés végétarien).1. adj. Perteneciente o relativo al vegetarianismo.2. adj. Partidario del vegetarianismo. Usado también como sustantivo.

adj., s. m. y f.Persona que practica el vegetarianismo.

Vegetarianismo

sustantivo masculino.Régimen alimenticio basado principalmente en el consumo exclusivo de productos vegetales.

1. m. Régimen alimenticio basado principalmente en el consumo de productos vegetales, pero que admite el uso de productos del animal vivo, como los huevos, la leche, etc.2. m. Doctrina y práctica de los vegetarianos.

s. m.Régimen dietético que limita la dieta a sustancias alimenticias de origen vegetal.

The table above allows three main considerations: lexicalized items vary from dictionary to dictionary, with each lexicalizing some terms and avoiding others.; secondly, those dictionaries do not make any reference to the ethic content of the terms “vegano/

na” and “veganismo”; finally, the definitions of “vegetarianismo”, “vegetalismo” and “veganismo” convey overlapping concepts and, as a consequence, do not manage to offer a truthful overall view the various diets. As a matter of fact, by looking at the table,


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it seems that the terms indicating the three distinct diets are treated as synonyms in the dictionaries, all referring to a diet based on exclusive legume consumption, with the exception of sole RAE, which mentions the passable consumption of eggs and dairy

products.In an etymological perspective, the only recognized etymon is that of the term “vegetariano/na, which, according to RAE, traces back to the French “végétarien”.

2.4 Table 4: Italian termsHoepli10 De Mauro11 Treccani12

Vegan[vè-gan]agg. e s.m. e f. inv.Vegetaliano

vè|gans.m. e f. inv.sec. XX; dall’ingl. vegan, contrazione di vegetarian “vegetariano”.(basso uso) vegetaliano

vèġën› o ‹vìġën› s. ingl. [forma contratta di vegetarian «vegetariano»] (pl. vegans ‹vèġën∫ o vìġën∫›), usato in ital come agg. e s. m. e f. – Lo stesso che vegetaliano: un ristorante v.; è un v. di stretta osservanza.

Vegano -ve|gà|nos.m., var.=> vegan

s. m. (f. -a) e agg. – Adattamento ital. dell’ingl. vegan: una dieta v.; i v. seguono una dieta esclusivamente vegetale.

Veganismo - - -

Vegetaliano

[ve-ge-ta-lià-no]A agg.Del vegetalismo, relativo al vegetalismoChe pratica il vegetalismoB come s.m. (f. -na)Chi aderisce al vegetalismo

ve|ge|ta|lià|noagg., s.m.1986; (comune)1. agg., s.m., che, chi pratica il vegetalismo2. agg., di dieta, costituita soltanto da alimenti vegetali, con esclusione anche di latte, uova e formaggio

agg. e s. m. (f. -a) [der. di vegetale2, sul modello di vegetariano]. – 1. agg. Relativo o conforme al vegetalismo: seguire una dieta v., costituita da cibi di natura rigorosamente vegetale. 2. Che o chi segue le indicazioni alimentari del vegetalismo: ho un figlio v.; è un convinto v.; è una v. a oltranza.


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Hoepli10 De Mauro11 Treccani12

Vegetalista -

ve|ge|ta|lì|staagg., s.m. e f.1994; der. di vegetale con -ista(comune) vegetaliano

agg. e s. m. e f. [der. di vegetalismo] (pl. m. -i). – Lo stesso, ma meno com., che vegetaliano: un’alimentazione vegetalista.

Vegetalismo

[ve-ge-ta-lì-ʃmo]s.m.Sistema dietetico che è una variante più rigida dal vegetarianismo, escludendo anche latte, uova e formaggio

ve|ge|ta|lì|ṣmos.m.sec. XX; (comune) sistema dietetico derivato dal vegetarianismo, che esclude qualunque alimento di provenienza animale, compresi latte, uova, formaggi, ecc.

s. m. [der. di vegetale2]. – Concezione dell’alimentazione umana derivata dal vegetarianismo, di cui rappresenta la forma più radicale, che esclude l’uso di ogni alimento di provenienza animale (perciò anche uova, miele, latte e prodotti caseari) e consente solo quello di alimenti vegetali.

Vegetariano

[ve-ge-ta-rià-no]A agg.1 Di persona, che si nutre soltanto di alimenti vegetali: suo padre era v.

ve|ge|ta|rià|noagg., s.m.1860; dal fr. végétarien, dall’ingl. vegetarian.(comune)1. agg., s.m., che, chi pratica il vegetarianismo2. agg., costituito soltanto da alimenti vegetali ed eventualmente da uova, latte, formaggio, ecc.: dieta, cena vegetariana; seguire un regime vegetariano | riservato ai vegetariani: ristorante vegetariano

agg. e s. m. (f. -a) [dall’ingl. vegetarian, tratto da veget(able) «vegetale», col suff. -arian di unitarian, trinitarian, ecc.]. – 1. agg. Dieta, alimentazione v., alimentazione umana limitata a cibi vegetali (o, nelle forme meno radicali, estesa ad alcuni prodotti animali come uova, latte e i suoi derivati). 2. Che o chi segue una dieta vegetariana: un’amica v.; un v., una v., un’associazione o un club di vegetariani. V. anche vegetarianismo.


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Hoepli10 De Mauro11 Treccani12

Vegetarianismo

[ve-ge-ta-ria-nì-ʃmo]o vegetarismos.m.Sistema dietetico che prescrive un’alimentazione a base di soli vegetali e di loro derivati, escludendo ogni specie di alimenti carnei, compresi i pesci, e talvolta anche ogni prodotto di natura animale come uova, latte, formaggi, burro

ve|ge|ta|ria|nì|ṣmos.m.1902; cfr. fr. végétarianisme.(comune)sistema dietetico, spesso adottato per motivi ideologici, che esclude rigorosamente dall’alimentazione la carne di qualsiasi animale, ma consente il consumo di prodotti quali latte, formaggio, burro, uova, ecc.

(meno com. vegetarismo) s. m. [der. di vegetariano]. – Concezione e prassi di alimentazione umana, basata su presupposti di ordine non soltanto igienico ma anche etico-religioso (come l’illiceità di uccidere esseri animali), che prescrive l’uso (ma non sempre esclusivo), di alimenti vegetali.

Vegetarismo -> vegetarianismo

ve|ge|ta|ri|smos.m. 1967; dal fr. végétarisme.(comune) vegetarianismo

-

From a lexical point of view, the Italian language has widely lexicalized the two main terms and has also derived a neologism from the Italian noun “vegetale”. In detail, the English “vegan” is included in all of the three dictionaries as both a loanword and an adapted borrowing, “vegano”, with the exception of Hoepli; the English “veganism” has been adopted as neither a loanword nor an adapted borrowing; both “vegetariano” and “vegetarianismo” are adopted as adapted borrowings from English, and, moreover, the latter has a synonym, “vegetarismo” deriving from the French “végétarisme”.Semantically, the three dictionaries suggests looking up at “vegan” for “vegano”, and, in turn, “vegetaliano” for “vegan”. However, the definitions of the term “vegetaliano” – or “vegetalista” – in De Mauro and Treccani, betray the authentic meaning of vegan, that is, a person condemning animal exploitation in any aspect of his/her life. As a matter of fact, the dictionaries only make reference to the nutritive aspect, with the avoidance of animals derived products and sole vegetables and legumes’ consumption. Then, “vegetariano” definition in Hoepli does not consider dairy

and eggs consumption, while De Mauro and Treccani are very accurate. Moreover, the latter, makes reference to “forms” of vegetarianism, thus regarding it as an hypernym of the various directly-derived sub-categories as well. Finally, “vegetarianismo” is well defined in all the dictionaries, with Hoepli, in this case, including possible dairy and eggs’ consumption.From an etymological point of view, the terms all come from the English language, though De Mauro recognises the French influx on the Italian “vegetariano” and “vegetarianismo”.

3. Others eating practicesThe following table shows the definition of both the terms referring to the most diffused alternative eating practices, and those referring to the profiles of the people adopting them. Since most of the terms are not lexicalized in dictionaries, the definitions provided have been taken from nutrition related articles mentioned in footnotes5.

5 A research in the chosen dictionaries had led to the detection of the lexicalized words among those in the table above. In English they are: ovo-lacto vegetarian (Merriam-Webster and

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Collins), fruitarian (Merriam-Webster and Col-lins), freegan (Merriam-Webster and Cambridge dictionary). Merriam-Webster also lexicalizes: lacto-ovo vegetarian, lacto-vegetarian, flexitari-an, pescatarian and locavore. In French, the only lexicalized word is fruitarien (TLFi). As for the lex-ical resources in Spanish, the only one that has

lexicalized some of the terms displayed in the table is CLAVE dictionary: lactovegetariano and ovovegetariano. Lastly, in Italian: crudista (De Mauro, Hoepli), futtariano (De Mauro), fruttarista (Treccani), reducetariano (Treccani), flexitariano (Treccani), freegan (Treccani) locavoro (Treccani).

English definition of the concept

English term French term Spanish term Italian term

A person who follows a vegan diet, but doesn’t necessarily try and exclude non-food uses of animals13

Dietary Vegan - Vegano Dietético -

Expression which originally meant vegan, now can mean vegan or vegetarian14

Strict VegetarianTotal Vegetarian Végétarien strict Vegetariano

estricto -

A person who only eats uncooked foods15

Raw Vegan

Crudi-véganeCrudi-végétalienCrudi-végétarien

Crudivegano Vegano crudista

A person who only eats fruit, seeds and nuts that don’t kill the plant. E.g. apples can be picked without killing the plant, but carrots can’t16

Fruitarian Fruitarien Frutariano Fruttariano Fruttarista

A person who does not eat meat but does eat dairy products and eggs17

Ovo-lacto vegetarian Lacto-ovo vegetarian

Ovo-lacto-végétarien

Ovo-lacto vegetariano

Latto-ovo-vegetariano


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A person who does not eat meat or dairy products but does eat eggs18

Ovo-vegetarianOvo vegetarian Ovo-végétarien Ovovegetariano

Ovo vegetarianoOvo-vegetariano

A person who does not eat meat but does eat dairy products19

Lacto-vegetarianLacto vegetarian

Lacto-végétarien

LactovegetarianoLacto vegetariano

Latto-vegetariano

A person who does not eat meat but does eat honey20

- - Api vegetariano -

A person who claims to be vegetarian, but isn’t. A person who states that he is are vegetarian, but then goes on to order fish or chicken21

Pseudo Vegetarian Pseudo-

végétarienPseudo vegetariano

Pseudo-Vegetariano

A person who primarily eats plants with the occasional inclusion of meat22

Semi-VegetarianFlexitarian

Semi-végétarien Flexitarien

Semi-vegetarianoFlexitariano

SemivegetarianoFlexitariano

A person who gradually reduce s meat consumption23

Reducetarian - Reducetariano Reducetariano

A person who reduces by half meat consumption largely for environmental reasons24

Demitarian Demitarien - Demitariano

A person who avoids red meat but eat chicken25

Pollotarian PollovegetarianPollo-vegetarian

Volaillo-végétarienPollotarien

Pollotariano Pollotariano

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A person who does not eat meat but does eat fish26

PescetarianPescatarianPesco-vegetarian

PescétarienPesco-végétarien Pescetariano Pescetariano

A person who does not eat red meat but does eat chicken and fish27

Pollo-pescetarianPesco-pollo vegetarian

- Pesce-pollotariano

Pesco-pollo-vegetariano

Vegan unless it’s free28 Freegan Freegane

GratuivoreFrigano Freegan

FreeganoFreegan

Vegan only when it is convenient29

Convegan - - -

Vegan Before 6 p.m.30 VB6

VB6Végétalien jusqu’à 18 heure

VB6Vegano antes de las 6Vegetariano antes de las 6Vegetariano a media jornada

VB6 Vegano part-time

A person who eats local foods because it helps us reconnect to the seasons and nature of our habitats, by asking us to appreciate the plants and animals that thrive in our region31

Locavore Locavore Locávoro Locavoro

A person who eats only food that has been produced in an environmentally friendly manner32

Ecotarian Éco-végétarien Ecotariano Ecotariano


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The table above allows some linguistic and terminological-related considerations to be made, and, especially, to highlight the neological process behind the creation of the terms in the field in question, a multifaceted world encapsulating brand-new tendencies and concepts in need for labels. After all, Cabré affirms that “the appearance of a new concept normally coincides with the appearance of a new designation. This new name arises in the language of the society that created the new concept. Neology, seen as a way of creating new designations, is obviously necessary in special subject fields in which the emergence of new concepts entails constant neological activity”6.The morphological analysis of the designations referring to the advocates of the various eating practices is useful to note that most of the terms are English adapted borrowings, that, in turn, had been created upon derivation. Some examples are the French terms: “végétarien”, “flexitarien”, the Spanish “vegetarian”, “reducetariano” and “flexitariano” and the Italian “vegetariano”, “reducetariano” e “flexitariano”. They derive from the English terms “vegetarian”, “reducetarian” and “flexetarian”, all showing the formation rootword plus the suffix “-arian”. This suffix – which means “believer in something” or “advocate of something”7 – is a back-formation from various words ending in “-arian”, some directly derived from Classical or Medieval Latin words ending in “-arius” by adding “-an” to the stem, other indirectly via Old French words ending in “-arien(ne)” or “-erien(ne)”.Then, when looking at the designations for the eating practices themselves, it is noted that they all rely on the English suffix “-ism” (corresponding to the Italian “ismo”, the French “-isme”, and Spanish “-ismo”). It comes – through Latin first and French then – from the Ancient Greek “-ismos”,

6 M. Teresa Cabre, Terminology: Theory, Methods, and Applications, Amsterdam/Phila-delphia, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1999, p. 203-204.7 Suffix -arian: http://www.collinsdictio-nary.com/dictionary/english/arian

and is used to form abstract nouns of action, state, condition and doctrine8. Some examples in the English language are: “veganism”, “vegetarianism”, “fruitarianism”, “reducetarianism”, “flexitarianism”, “pescetarianism” (also spelled “pescatarianism”), etc.; in French: “véganisme”, “végétalisme”, “végétarisme”, “fruitarisme”, “pescétarisme”, “flexitarisme”; in Spanish: “veganismo”, “vegetalismo”, “vegetarianismo”, “crudiveganismo”, “frutarianismo”, “pescetarianismo”, “pollotarianismo”; in Italian: “veganismo”, “vegetalismo”, “vegetarianismo”, “crudismo”, “fruttarismo”, “pescetarianismo”, etc.A further frequent English suffix exploited in the four languages is “-vore” (French “-vore”, Spanish “-voro”, Italian “-voro”) which comes from the Latin “vorare” (“to devour”) and is used to form nouns indicating what kind of a diet an animal has9. Examples are the English “locavore”; the French “locavore”, “gratuivore”, the Spanish “locávoro”; the Italian “locavoro”.Apart from derivation, neological processes also rely upon composition or compounding. A specific compound-type is the neoclassical one, in which one term, at least, has classical origins; examples are the English “semi-vegetarian”, the French “semi-végétarien”, the Spanish “semi-vegetariano”, the Italian “semivegetariano” (where “semi-” is a Latin prefix that stands for “half” or “partly”10). Other examples of neoclassical prefixes are: “lacto-” (from the Latin “lac” meaning “milk”11), “ovo-” (from tha Latin “ovo” meaning “egg”12), “eco-” (from the Late Latin “oeco-” meaning “household”, from the Greek “oikos”

8 Suffix -ism: http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ism9 Suffix -vore: http://www.merriam-web-ster.com/dictionary/vore10 Prefix semi-: http://www.collinsdictiona-ry.com/dictionary/english/semi11 Prefix lacto-: http://www.merriam-web-ster.com/dictionary/lact12 Prefix ovo-: http://www.merriam-web-ster.com/dictionary/ovi

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/arian

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/arian

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ism

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ism

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vore

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vore

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/semi

http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/semi

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lact

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lact

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ovi

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ovi

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meaning “house”13) and “demi” (from the Vulgar Latin “*dimedius”, modification of Latin “dimidius” meaning “half” going through the Anglo-French and the Middle English14).Finally, here two examples of portmanteau word - a word deriving from the fusion of two terms - are signalled: “convegan” (“convenient” + “vegan”) and “freegan” (“free” + “vegan”). In Spanish, the latter has been borrowed in its English form along

with an adapted borrowing (“frigano”); French speakers have adopted the adapted borrowing (“freegane”) and the loan translation (“gratuivore”); the Italian language has both the integral borrowing (“freegan”) and the adapted borrowing (“freegano”).The terminology in clearly shows, through graphical and orthographical variations, the instability of the terms coined. Undoubtedly, it is due to the recent creation of the lexical forms, not fully accommodated in the various languages yet. For instance, in English, the same definition can be successfully applied to three different terms: “pollo-vegetarian” (with dash), “pollovegetarian” (with univerbation), “pollotarian” (portmanteau word). The three lexical forms show how the initial juxtaposition of two separate terms triggered a compounding process that eventually led to the creation of a

13 Prefix eco-: http://www.merriam-web-ster.com/dictionary/eco-14 Prefix demi-: http://www.merriam-we-bster.com/dictionary/demi

unique shorter term.Lastly, the research has brought to light the existence of the acronym “VB6”, standing for the English expression “vegan before 6 p.m.”, borrowed in its full form in French, Spanish and Italian, though often accompanied by a periphrasis.

3.1 Semantic relationsIn conclusion, by means of a diagram displaying the hierarchical relations among

the eating practices analyzed so far, the semantic relations15 among them can be examined. The aim of this section is to disambiguate the meanings of some labels which are often put on people without awareness of the facts. From the diagram above it can be affirmed that “ovo-lacto vegetarian”, “lacto-vegetarian”, “ovo-vegetarian”, “vegan, raw vegan”, “dietary vegan”, “strict vegetarian” or “total vegetarian” and “fruitarian” are hyponyms of “vegetarian” since they refer to people that abolished any kind of animal meat from their diets. However, as shown before in the article, the attitude towards eggs and dairy products’ consumption, and animal derived products in general, varies.

15 For a definition of “semantic rela-tionship” and its various types, please refer to: Gualdo Riccardo and Telve Stefano. 2011. Lin-guaggi specialistici dell’italiano. Roma: Carocci.

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eco

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eco

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demi

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demi

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The diagram above shows that the terms “semi-vegetarian”, “flexitarian”, “reducetarian” are hypernyms of “pollotarian” (“pollovegetarian”, “pollo-vegetarian”), pescetarian (“pescatarian”, “pescovegetarian”), “pollo-pescetarian” (“pesco-pollo vegetarian”), “VB6”, “freegan”, “convegan” since these represent eating practices aimed at meat consumption’s reduction.

4. ConclusionsGenerally, there is still a lack of awareness about the concepts of “veganism” and “vegetarianism”, and the traits that differentiate the two practices in the four languages. What seems to be inhibiting the process of disambiguation of the two terms often used as synonyms are: the issue concerning whether to eat dairy products and eggs or not; the negligence of the ethic value associated to veganism. As a matter of fact, though the terms have

English origins, the English dictionaries entries’ analysed do not convey their authentic meaning. In French, “vegan” and the related terms – “végan(e)” and “véganisme” – are not even lexicalized in any of the dictionaries explored. In Spanish the two terms are commonly treated as synonyms, whereas, in Italian, “vegan” is meant as a synonym of “vegetaliano” though this is defined as an eating practice, not a real philosophy as in the authentic definition of “veganism”.

Note in tabella1 Collins Dictionary: http://www.collins-dictionary.com/2 Merriam-Webster. Dictionary and The-saurus: http://www.merriam-webster.com/3 Cambridge Free English. Dictionary and Thesaurus: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/fr/4 Dictionnaire français Larousse: http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais5 Trésor de la Langue Française Informa-tisé (TLFi): http://atilf.atilf.fr/

http://www.collinsdictionary.com

http://www.collinsdictionary.com

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6 VV. AA. 2008. Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue française 2009, Paris : Le Robert.7 Maldonado González. 2010. Clave. Diccionario de uso del español actual. Madrid: Ediciones SM.8 Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real academia española: http://www.rae.es/9 Diccionario de uso del español de María Moliner (DUE): http://babel20.blogspot.it/2008/09/el-diccionario-mara-moliner-dispo-nible.html10 Dizionario Italiano Hoepli: http://www.grandidizionari.it/Dizionario_Italiano.aspx11 Dizionario italiano De Mauro: http://di-zionario.internazionale.it/12 Vocabolario Treccani: http://www.trec-cani.it/vocabolario/13 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html14 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html15 http://www.treehugger.com/green-fo-od/vegetarian-spectrum-rainbow-terms-me-an-eating-green.html16 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html17 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html18 http://vegetarian.about.com/od/glos-sary/g/Ovovegetarian.htm19 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/

vegetarianismDefined.html20 http://www.clubplaneta.com.mx/coci-na/tipos_de_vegetarianos.htm21 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html22 http://vegetarian.about.com/od/glossary/f/flexitarian.htm23 http://www.reducetarian.com/what-we-do/24 http://www.treehugger.com/green-fo-od/heres-how-much-un-scientists-think-we-should-cut-our-meat-and-dairy-consumption.html25 http://www.urbandictionary.com/defi-ne.php?term=pollotarian26 http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/vegetarianismDefined.html27 http://www.urbandictionary.com/defi-ne.php?term=pollo-pescetarian28 http://www.treehugger.com/green-fo-od/vegetarian-spectrum-rainbow-terms-me-an-eating-green.html29 http://fr.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=convegan30 http://www.thekitchn.com/mark-bitt-mans-vb6-diet-me-19476831 http://www.treehugger.com/green-fo-od/vegetarian-spectrum-rainbow-terms-me-an-eating-green.html32 http://dictionary.reference.com/brow-se/ecotarian

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http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=pollo-pescetarian

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di ENRICA RAPOLLA Centro Europe Direct LUPT Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Direttore tecnico responsabile per le relazioni interne e le partnership istituzionali, per le reti e la cooperazione internazionale, funzioni di progettazione, di monitoraggio, ottimizzazione e programmazione eventi, direzione di produzione editoriale, Linea Amica

“Nutrire il Pianeta. Energia per la Vita”, lo sviluppo sostenibile nell’ottica di una cultura per la crescita e l’occupazione all’Expo Milano 2015

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RISE - RIVISTA INTERNAzIONALE dI STUdI EUROPEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSN 2421-583X

Abstract Within a European perspective towards growth and occupation, EXPO Milano 2015 fits into the field of sustainable development for future’s generations. The events gathers Countries all over the world which have been invited to interpret the theme “Feeding the planet, energy for Life”. In fact, the topic of food will stimulate each country to propose functional solutions to face the mankind’s challenges.

La Strategia Europa 2020In risposta alla crisi economica e finanziaria degli ultimi anni, la Commissione europea ha elaborato la Strategia Europa 2020, un’iniziativa intesa a sostenere la crescita e l’occupazione in tutta l’UE.

Europa 2020 è infatti, la strategia che l’Unione europea ha varato nel 2010 e non mira soltanto a superare la crisi dalla quale le economie di molti paesi stanno ora

gradualmente uscendo, ma vuole anche colmare le lacune del nostro modello di crescita e creare le condizioni per una crescita più intelligente, sostenibile e solidale. In particolare ciò significa:

più intelligente, attraverso lo sviluppo delle conoscenze e dell’innovazione;più sostenibile, basata su un’economia più verde, più efficiente nella gestione delle risorse e più competitiva;

Foto da Pinterest della Commissione Europea: Family Farming: Feeding the planet - World Food Day #WFD2014 #EUExpo2015

http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_it.htm

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più inclusiva, volta a promuovere l’occupazione e la coesione sociale e territoriale.

Per raggiungere quest’aspirazione, l’UE si è posta cinque grandi obiettivi da raggiungere entro il 2020 che riguardano l’innalzamento del livello occupazionale, l’aumento degli investimenti in ricerca e sviluppo, un’attenzione particolare ai cambiamenti climatici e alla sostenibilità energetica, l’istruzione e la lotta alla povertà e all’emarginazione.La strategia comporta anche sette iniziative prioritarie che tracciano un quadro entro il quale l›UE e i governi nazionali sostengono reciprocamente i loro sforzi per realizzare le priorità di Europa 2020, quali l›innovazione, l›economia digitale, l›occupazione, i giovani, la politica industriale, la povertà e l›uso efficiente delle risorse.Altre leve dell’UE, come il mercato unico europeo, il bilancio europeo e le politiche estere contribuiscono al raggiungimento degli obiettivi della strategia Europa 2020.

Il TemaAll’interno di questi macro obiettivi, si inserisce la tematica e la domanda-sfida” e’ possibile assicurare a tutta l’umanità un’alimentazione buona, sana, sufficiente e sostenibile?” a cui si è cercato di dare risposta con l’evento dell’Esposizione Universale di Milano 2015.Dopo averci nutrito per millenni, il pianeta Terra ha bisogno di nutrimento, fatto soprattutto di rispetto, atteggiamenti sostenibili, applicazione di tecnologie avanzate e visioni politiche nuove, per individuare un equilibrio diverso tra risorse e consumi.

Expo Milano 2015 vede protagonisti i Paesi di tutto il mondo che sono stati invitati ad interpretare il Tema Nutrire il Pianeta, Energia per la Vita. L’alimentazione, tema vitale e quotidiano per l’intera popolazione mondiale, porta con sé profonde problematiche. Ogni Paese, partendo dalla propria cultura e dalle proprie tradizioni, è chiamato a interrogarsi e a proporre

soluzioni rispetto alle grandi sfide legate alle prospettive dell’alimentazione.Expo Milano 2015 è l’Esposizione Universale che l’Italia ospita dal primo maggio al 31 ottobre 2015 ed è il più grande evento mai realizzato sull’alimentazione e la nutrizione. Per sei mesi Milano si trasforma in una vetrina mondiale in cui i Paesi mostrano il meglio delle proprie tecnologie per dare una risposta concreta a un’esigenza vitale: riuscire a garantire cibo sano, sicuro e sufficiente per tutti i popoli, nel rispetto del Pianeta e dei suoi equilibri. Per questo motivo servono scelte politiche consapevoli, stili di vita sostenibili e, anche attraverso l’utilizzo di tecnologie all’avanguardia, sarà possibile trovare un equilibrio tra disponibilità e consumo delle risorse. “Nutrire il Pianeta, Energia per la Vita” è il Tema al centro della manifestazione, il filo logico che attraversa tutti gli eventi organizzati sia all’interno sia all’esterno dello Sito Espositivo. Lo scopo è quello di far vivere al visitatore un’esperienza unica, da protagonista, creando consapevolezza e partecipazione in merito al diritto a un’alimentazione sana, sicura e sufficiente, alla sostenibilità ambientale, sociale ed economica della filiera agroalimentare, alla salvaguardia del gusto e della cultura del cibo.Il tema di Expo Milano 2015 è collegato ad alcuni degli Obiettivi del Millennio fissati dalle Nazioni Unite:

• Sradicare la povertà estrema e la fame, almeno del 50% rispetto a quella che soffre la fame• Ridurre di 2/3 la mortalità infantile• Migliorare la salute materna• Garantire la sostenibilità ambientale stimolando politiche e programmi di sviluppo sostenibile per invertire l’attuale perdita di risorse ambientali, riducendo il processo di annullamento della biodiversità• Sviluppare un partenariato mondiale per lo sviluppo.

http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/flagship-initiatives/index_it.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/flagship-initiatives/index_it.htm

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Gli AmbitiPer consumo si intende qualsiasi attività umana legata al puro nutrimento dell’uomo, dalle più individuali e spontanee, alle più complesse e socialmente organizzate. L’altro ambito delle attività umane che riguarda l’alimentazione è quello che afferisce al mondo della produzione alimentare, ovvero tutte quelle attività umane finalizzate alla creazione di cibo attraverso l’intervento dell’uomo sulla natura.

Considerati questi due ambiti di consumo e produzione, all’interno dell’asse della natura, si evince una constatazione che può essere il punto di partenza per l’elaborazione del Theme Statement: la ricerca di un equilibrio tra esigenze alimentari dell’uomo e risorse disponibili. Questo equilibrio alquanto precario ed instabile per sua natura, sarà tentato di essere rappresentato dai diversi Partecipanti alla Fiera.

NaturaRisorse NaturaliAmbienteMutamenti Naturali

ConservazioneCotturaLuoghiModalità

Consumo

ProduzioneColtivazione, Allevamento, Pesca Infrastrutture e LogisticaTrasformazione

Arti e MestieriManifatturaIndustria

EvoluzioneGli Itinerari TematiciLa riflessione sul Tema Nutrire il Pianeta, Energia per la Vita si sviluppa lungo cinque percorsi tematici che collegano le aree e gli spazi del Sito Espositivo.Gli Itinerari Tematici raccontano le storie di Expo Milano 2015. Storie di cibo, di tavole, di gusto, offrendo diverse interpretazioni. Sono percorsi fisici ma anche ideali, perché seguono il fil rouge di una tematica, e sono modulabili sugli interessi del visitatore.

1) Storia dell’Uomo, storie di ciboArti, mestieri, tecniche d’insediamento, commerci, ma anche gli aspetti degradanti della colonizzazione e dello sfruttamento raccontano la storia dell’uomo nella sua evoluzione. Ancora più interessante l’interpretazione di questi temi attraverso la storia del cibo: le tecniche di coltivazione, allevamento, trasformazione e mutazione degli alimenti evidenziano le caratteristiche della dieta degli individui.

2) Abbondanza e privazione: il paradosso del contemporaneoContraddizioni nel cibo e nella sua disponibilità: una parte della popolazione mondiale vive in condizioni di sotto-nutrizione e mancato accesso all’acqua potabile, un’altra parte presenta malattie fisiche e psicologiche legate alla cattiva/eccessiva nutrizione e allo spreco. Possono scienza, educazione, prevenzione, cooperazione internazionale, ingegneria sociale e politica ambire al superamento di questo doloroso paradosso?

3) Il futuro del ciboQuale sarà il cibo del domani? Quale la dieta dei nostri figli? Il primo passo per rispondere è quello di far conoscere le tecnologie, le scoperte scientifiche, i traguardi della ricerca di oggi che sono la base di partenza per la formazione del capitale umano del domani, attento sia all’ottimizzazione delle filiere agroalimentari

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sia alla qualità dei prodotti che finiscono sulle nostre tavole.

4) Cibo sostenibile = mondo equoCome si può responsabilizzare l’Uomo affinché mantenga uno sviluppo equilibrato tra la produzione del cibo e lo sfruttamento delle risorse? Expo Milano 2015, dedicata al tema del cibo e della nutrizione, è la piattaforma di discussione dalla quale lanciare i nuovi obiettivi per un millennio sostenibile, dove da un lato sia salvaguardata la biodiversità, dall’altro, tutelati saperi, tradizioni e intere culture.

5) Il gusto è conoscenzaNutrirsi è certamente un atto necessario, ma può essere anche uno dei più gioiosi per l’uomo. E, soprattutto, il piacere del palato diventa strumento di conoscenza: i sapori e gli odori delle cucine internazionali raccontano la storia e le culture delle società del Pianeta. Un itinerario a cavallo tra manifestazioni culturali e degustazioni diffuse, dove oltre ai prodotti finiti trovino posto anche le tecniche di conservazione dei cibi, le diverse modalità di cottura, e le altre invenzioni finalizzate a modificare o mantenere i sapori.

I Progetti La scuola, il cinema, la ricerca e l’innovazione, la tecnologia digitale, la femminilità. Tutti i giorni ci confrontiamo con questi temi, cercando riflessi e spunti che ci riguardano, che ci facciano crescere, imparare e anche migliorare. Expo Milano 2015 promuove una serie di Progetti proprio in questi ambiti, con la convinzione che il Tema Nutrire il Pianeta, Energia per la Vita attraversa la vita di tutti, tutti i giorni: così il cibo, il gusto, l’alimentazione, la sostenibilità vengono declinati con diverse voci e diverse competenze, per stimolare la curiosità e la voglia di conoscere che da sempre muovono il mondo. 1 - WE-Women for Expo è un progetto che parla di nutrimento e sostenibilità e lo fa per la prima volta mettendo al centro di un’Esposizione Universale la cultura femminile. Ogni donna è depositaria di

pratiche, conoscenze, tradizioni legate al cibo, alla capacità di nutrire e nutrirsi, di “prendersi cura”. Non solo di se stessi, ma anche degli altri. Grazie a WE-Women for Expo le donne dei Paesi Partecipanti a Expo Milano 2015 verranno invitate a esprimersi su nutrimento del corpo e nutrimento della libertà e dell’intelligenza, con la convinzione che la sostenibilità del Pianeta passa attraverso una nuova alleanza tra cibo e cultura e che le artefici di questo nuovo sguardo e nuovo patto per il futuro debbano essere le donne.

2 - Short Food Movie - Feed your Mind, Film your Planet è un’iniziativa che vuole coinvolgere le persone nell’interpretazione delle tematiche di Expo Milano 2015 legate alla nutrizione, alla sostenibilità e alla cooperazione chiedendo loro di creare brevi video. I contributi formeranno un’opera d’arte virale e globale fatta da centinaia di migliaia, di immagini, di lingue, di culture, che si arricchirà gradualmente online.

3 - Laboratorio Expo è nato per studiare le tematiche legate a Expo Milano 2015, consiste nella raccolta delle opinioni più autorevoli della ricerca ed è dedicato a studiosi, istituzioni e pubblico, creando così un network di collaborazioni allo scopo di coinvolgere la comunità scientifica in una riflessione sul mondo dell’alimentazione e dello sviluppo sostenibil. Il fine ultimo è quello di arrivare nel 2015 con una Carta di Raccomandazioni della Scienza per Expo Milano 2015: i suggerimenti del mondo della scienza per un futuro più sostenibile. 4 - Feeding Knowledge è il programma di Expo Milano 2015 per la cooperazione nella ricerca e l’innovazione sulla Food Security si basa sull’idea che lo sviluppo delle conoscenze e la condivisione sono gli strumenti principali per trovare soluzioni concrete per la sicurezza alimentare che soddisfino le esigenze dei Paesi in via di sviluppo. Grazie anche al sostegno della Piattaforma Tecnologica, uno strumento di e-collaboration di facile fruizione, il forum e l’interazione fra ricercatori ed esperti del mondo accademico e della politica, il

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progetto può allargarsi e dare l’opportunità di scambiare idee, conoscenze e ricerche su modelli di sviluppo virtuosi e sostenibili.

5 - Childrenshare è un programma culturale dedicato ai bambini, pensato da Expo Milano 2015 in collaborazione con Fondazione MUBA Museo dei Bambini Milano: sei mesi di attività ludiche ed educative su temi inerenti l’Esposizione Universale che si svolgono in uno spazio speciale che è pronto ad accogliere tutti i bambini del mondo!

6 - A scuola con Expo. Studenti e docenti saranno i protagonisti di Expo Milano 2015, l’appuntamento che chiamerà centinaia di Paesi a confrontarsi attorno a un unico, importante Tema: quello dell’alimentazione. E quale palcoscenico migliore della scuola per parlare di nutrizione, cibo, sicurezza alimentare e sostenibilità? Per la maggior parte dei bambini e degli adolescenti, la scoperta delle corrette abitudini a tavola inizia in classe. L’obiettivo del Progetto Scuola è lasciare in eredità alle generazioni future un patrimonio di conoscenze, esperienze, valori culturali e tecnologici.

7 - E015 - Digital Ecosystem è il risultato del Progetto Strategico ICT per Expo Milano 2015, offre a tutte le imprese, gli enti pubblici, le associazioni e gli altri soggetti pubblici e privati che operano sul territorio una straordinaria occasione: quella di fare sistema, creare nuove relazioni e collaborare approfittando delle molteplici opportunità create da Expo Milano 2015. E015 è un ambiente digitale che consente di far parlare tra loro i sistemi informatici di attori pubblici e privati che operano sul territorio in molteplici settori: trasporti, accoglienza, turismo, cultura, spettacolo…

8 - Programma Volontari per Expo Milano 2015, ha come scopo principale quello di permettere a tutti i cittadini, italiani e non, che vorranno essere parte di questo grande evento, di attivarsi nell’accoglienza e supporto per i visitatori e i partecipanti provenienti da tutta Italia e da

tutto il mondo, dando un chiaro ed evidente messaggio e immagine di integrazione, universalità e solidarietà, trasferendo i valori e i contenuti del tema, attraverso un’opera di informazione e sensibilizzazione.

9 - Per tutti gli italiani residenti all’estero e per i cittadini stranieri di origine italiana finalmente l’Italia non sarà più solo un ricordo o l’immagine di un luogo lontano conosciuto attraverso i racconti. È a loro che Expo Milano 2015 si rivolge con il progetto Made of Italians, nato con l’obiettivo di offrire un’esperienza unica: visitare per la prima volta la propria terra di origine, o semplicemente farvi ritorno, nell’anno del più grande evento mondiale. Expo Milano 2015 riserva un’accoglienza speciale, per far vivere loro l’esperienza emozionante del ritorno nel proprio Paese d’origine, dandogli la possibilità di conoscere il luogo di nascita di genitori o dei nonni. 10 - WAME & Expo2015 (World Access to Modern Energy) è l’iniziativa che ad Expo Milano 2015 vuole far conoscere al pubblico il problema dell’esclusione dall’accesso all’energia di una larga parte della popolazione mondiale e soprattutto valorizzare le moltissime esperienze che, nel mondo, affrontano questo problema. Un maggiore accesso all’energia moderna aumenterebbe enormemente l’accesso alle risorse idriche e alimentari riducendo la povertà estrema e migliorando il benessere delle persone.

11 - Aquae Venezia 2015 l’evento espositivo e convegnistico internazionale dedicato all’acqua collaterale e con il patrocinio di Expo Milano 2015. L’esposizione mira a raccontare, rappresentare, testimoniare le eccellenze della ricerca e dell’impresa, dei valori simbolici e concreti legati all’acqua. Aquae Venezia 2015 realizza in tal senso un percorso interattivo tra gli innumerevoli temi legati all’agricoltura e all’industria, alla salute e al benessere, al tempo libero e al lavoro

12 - Con l’Osservatorio permanente Milan Center for Food Law and Policy, Milano

http://childrenshare.muba.it/

http://www.muba.it/

http://www.milanfoodlaw.org/

http://www.milanfoodlaw.org/

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aspira a rimanere un punto di riferimento mondiale per il diritto al cibo anche dopo la fine dell’Esposizione Universale. L’attività del Centro consiste nella raccolta, nella sistematizzazione e nello studio comparato della normativa in materia di diritto al cibo, nella analisi e nel raffronto delle politiche pubbliche più virtuose in ambito alimentare. Il principale tema di dibattito, affrontato e promosso dal Centro, è quello relativo alla cosiddetta food security, che con il recente affacciarsi del framework dei diritti umani si afferma come “right to food”. L’attività di studio e ricerca del Milan Center è condotta nella prospettiva di promuovere la sottoscrizione da parte degli Stati di una Convenzione multilaterale in tema di diritto al cibo.

13 - Il concept: “Salva la Biodiversità. Salva il Pianeta”. Una parte consistente del lavoro e una delle intuizioni più importanti di Slow Food riguarda da sempre la salvaguardia della biodiversità domestica con una serie di

progetti specifici. Lo spazio di Slow Food a Expo Milano 2015 è strutturato proprio per porre al centro questa tematica. Infatti verrà illustrato come Nutrire il Pianeta sia possibile soltanto ripartendo dalla biodiversità, e preservandola per le generazioni future. Parlare di biodiversità, infatti, significa adottare una prospettiva olistica, vuol dire parlare di agricoltura sostenibile, di sovranità alimentare, di accesso al cibo buono, pulito e giusto per tutti.

14 - Expo e territori è un’iniziativa per conoscere da vicino le eccellenze agroalimentari italiane. È un viaggio alla scoperta dei luoghi di produzione, del patrimonio culturale e paesaggistico, delle tradizioni e dell’ospitalità italiana. È il racconto del rapporto che lega ogni prodotto tipico con il suo territorio: storia, arte, stile di vita. È un catalogo con oltre 80 prodotti tipici d’eccellenza per scoprire i sapori e le bellezze delle diverse regioni italiane.

Le sfide L’Esposizione vuole essere un’Expo “collaborativa”, nella convinzione che le Esposizioni del XXI secolo dovranno essere momenti di confronto ma anche di collaborazione tra i diversi stakeholder della comunità internazionale sulle principali sfide dell’umanità. Dall’applicazione di buone pratiche nell’agricoltura, nell’allevamento e nell’adozione degli organismi geneticamente modificati, alla salvaguardia delle biodiversità, passando non solo per il contesto produttivo, ma anche attraverso l’adozione di determinate politiche e strategie economico finanziarie. Si tratta soltanto di

alcuni dei temi rispetto ai quali Expo Milano 2015 si propone come piattaforma per il confronto e la collaborazione. Expo Milano 2015 vuole essere, infine, opportunità di riflessione sulla storia dell’uomo e sulla produzione del cibo, sia nella sua accezione di conservazione e valorizzazione della memoria di antichi saperi, sia nella ricerca di nuove applicazioni tecnologiche. Nonostante l’importanza delle questioni sul tavolo e l’urgenza delle risposte da dare, Expo Milano 2015 punta a mantenere lo spirito di positiva fiducia nel progresso umano che ha caratterizzato la storia delle Esposizioni Universali e a rappresentare con entusiasmo quell’energia vitale che il cibo

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da sempre porta con sé: gesto supremo di ospitalità e rito, emblema della comunità che si riunisce, per celebrare la vita e rinnovare la propria unità, in un reciproco scambio di conoscenze e informazioni.

Linkhttp://ec.europa.eu/italy/news/index_it.htmhttp://ec.europa.eu/culture/policy/strategic-framework/growth-jobs_it.htmhttp://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/index_it.htmhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-contenthttp://www.expo2015.org

foto da Pinterest della Commissione Europea

http://ec.europa.eu/italy/news/index_it.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/culture/policy/strategic-framework/growth-jobs_it.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/culture/policy/strategic-framework/growth-jobs_it.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/index_it.htm

http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/europe-2020-in-a-nutshell/index_it.htm

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content

http://www.expo2015.org

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/506655026801424594/

di ANTONIETTA MARIA NISI Centro Europe Direct LUPT Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Co-Direttore del Coordinamento di Settore “Risorsa mare e difesa del suolo” Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche - Technologist Researcher

I Biofuels: la vera frontiera energetica rinnovabile

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Abstract After the European Commission has dedicated a week for sustainable energy 15 to 19 June 2015 also published the progress made in the field of Renewable Energy .It notes that the EU wants to reach as soon as the target of 20% by 2020. The report shows that Europe and the 15 Member States want to achieve this goal because Europe has more Renewable energy per capita than anywhere else in the world surpassing the 130 billion euros a year and exporting renewable energy to a value of 35 billion euros. The report also publishes a number of interesting results on the total of fossil fuels, the use of which was avoided in 2013 and 30% is due to the replacement of natural gas with renewable energy sources, also according to this report the nations are reaching a proper sensitivity towards the need of the Planet and the use of new forms of inexhaustible energy, thanks to the fact that the 2020 targets have become a car manufacturer European investment both globally and locally. The status of sustainable energy production is a tendency to have to interface with the transport sector for the sustainability of biofuels and bioliquids.

© European Union, 2009 / Source: Sipa Press / Foto: Chamussy Laurent - Spirulina

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I biocarburanti1 sono tutti quei combustibili liquidi, solidi o gas prodotti dalla biomassa e destinati al recupero di energia nel settore dei trasporti. I biocarburanti sono utilizzati come additivi o in alternativa al corrente combustibile fossile: diesel (incorporazione come biodiesel, benzina a cherosene e gas.

I Biofuels dunque rappresentano la nuova frontiera di risorsa rinnovabile disponibile senza alcuna interruzione non solo dall’utilizzo della biomassa agricola ma anche da quella biologica e marina utilizzando le alghe come materia prima ecologicamente sostenibile, ma anche la fermentazione anaerobica di substrati zuccherini glucosidici, oppure dalla sintesi chimica attraverso la gassificazione di biomasse e la trasformazione dei gas di sintesi ottenuto da una miscela di alcoli .Ma ancor più un successo sarà la conversione del Bioetanolo (alcol etilico prodotto mediante un processo di fermentazione delle biomasse), in Butanolo (alcol butilico) come prezioso biocarburante.

Le differenti tecnologieI biocarburanti riguardano due settori principali: Settori liquidi: l’etanolo (e più

in generale della famiglia di “spiriti”) nel settore della benzina, biodiesel nel settore diesel e biofuel nella industria del kerosene (idrocarburi ). Il Settore GAS: biometano combustibile per uso veicoli a gas naturale.In generale, i biocarburanti sono classificati in tre generazioni. I cosiddetti biocarburanti di

prima generazione, derivano principalmente da tradizionali risorse agricole: barbabietole, cereali, canna da zucchero per l’etanolo, girasole, soia, palma per il biodiesel; i cosiddetti biocarburanti di ricerca avanzata, cioè 2a e 3° generazione non hanno ancora raggiunto la fase commerciale e sono in fase di ricerca e sviluppo. Ed è proprio su quest’ultimi che la Comunità Europea preme tantissimo ad incentivare attraverso programmi e finanziamenti volti a sensibilizzare e soddisfare il sociale , le esigenze ambientali e le crescenti esigenze di carburante.

I Biocarburanti di 2a generazione utilizzano l’intera pianta o lignocellulosa quindi biomassa: legno, paglia, rifiuti, residui agricoli e forestali, colture dedicate. Biocarburanti di 3a generazione si

1 Il prefisso “bio” indica che i combustibili biocarburanti da biomassa, in contrapposizione

ai combustibili fossili.

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distinguono dalla 2a generazione dal tipo di biomassa utilizzata. Quest’ultima è di origine da marina e non : microalghe e macroalghe

generalmente autotrofi (capaci di sintetizzare materiale organico da materiale inorganico).

In termini tecnologici la ricerca mira sia verso il percorso della biochimica che consente di convertire due macromolecole principali ovvero zuccheri e lipidi; e percorsi termochimici che convertono due principali intermediari: gas di sintesi e bio-olio in biocarburanti.Infine, la maggior parte di questi biocarburanti avanzati riuscirà a concorrere a livello industriale non prima del 2020 in Italia.

La ricerca in laboratorio dei BiofuelsI Percorsi biochimici si occupano del

processo di conversione degli zuccheri e dei lipidi attraverso l’estrazione di tali molecole di biomassa dai vari ecosistemi siano essi di origine terrestre o acquatica: gli Zuccheri dalla canna da zucchero, barbabietola da zucchero, mais, frumento, o da generazioni avanzati come microalghe, biomassa lignocellulosica e per i Lipidi piante oleaginose oli, soia, microalghe. Questi percorsi richiedono quindi una separazione efficace della biomassa utilizzata per liberare le macromolecole di interesse (zuccheri e lipidi) che possono essere trasformate.

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Lo studio sulla fermentazione ed i ceppi batterici garantirebbe però una produzione

più competitiva di biocarburanti , in particolare la trasformazione di bioetanolo

in butanolo , tramite l’uso del batterio Clostridium appartenente al gruppo degli sporigeni produttori di spore resistenti a condizioni ambientali estreme. I biocarburanti non sono limitati agli alcoli e microbi; i combustibili alternativi sono composti anche da graminacee, mais, alghe, sottoprodotti del riso e anche i rifiuti delle birrerie. Ma un gallone di butanolo costa leggermente di più della benzina, un costo troppo alto che pur producendo più energia lo mette fuori dal mercato. L’idea dunque del ceppo Clostridium e dei batteri mutanti è possibile ottenerlo fino a 30 grammi di butanolo per litro d’acqua , raddoppiando così la produzione del biocarburante.

Il contesto EuropeoQuattro sono le direttive in Politica Europea in materia di biocarburanti:La Direttiva 2003/96 / CE prevede la possibilità per gli Stati membri di applicare un’accisa (un’imposta indiretta riscossa sul consumo di determinati prodotti) ridotta a taluni oli minerali (combustibile) che contengono biocarburanti e ai biocarburanti. La Direttiva 2003/30 / CE sulla promozione dell’uso dei biocarburanti o di altri carburanti rinnovabili nei trasporti, elenca i prodotti considerati biocarburanti e le forme in cui possono verificarsi. Essa invita gli Stati membri a fissare obiettivi nazionali per l’incorporazione di biocarburanti nei combustibili, con valori di riferimento: 2% di fine PCI del 2005 e 5,75% nel 2010 PCI (percentuale di energia).La Direttiva 2009/28 / CE (promozione

delle energie rinnovabili), nel quadro del “pacchetto energia-clima” nel dicembre 2008, fissa un obiettivo del 20% il consumo energie rinnovabili finale entro il 2020, il 10% nel settore dei trasporti. Si richiede anche il rispetto dei criteri di sostenibilità per i biocarburanti. Ed infine la Direttiva 2009/30 / CE (qualità dei carburanti) che fissa un obiettivo di riduzione del 10% delle emissioni di gas a effetto serra dei combustibili tra il 2010 e il 2020.Ai sensi della direttiva 2009/28 / CE relativa al regime di biocarburanti e di bioliquidi, indica che solo i biocarburanti sostenibili potranno beneficiare di un aiuto finanziario sia nella loro produzione che nel loro consumo per il riconoscimento e il raggiungimento degli obiettivi di sviluppo nazionale sulle energie rinnovabili.A tal fine, lo Stato deve, in particolare, garantire che gli operatori economici (agenzie di raccolta e stoccaggio di materie prime, produttori e fornitori di biocarburanti, compagnie petrolifere e distributori), forniscano una prova e risultati reali sui criteri di sostenibilità fissati dalle direttive CE. In particolare, lo Stato dovrà assicurarsi che gli operatori economici raccolgano informazioni affidabili sulla sostenibilità dei biocarburanti e dei bioliquidi e che essi stessi istituiscano un controllo indipendente delle informazioni presentate ed una dimostrazione continua dello stato dell’arte.Lo Stato dunque fornirà agli operatori economici, per mezzo di un’applicazione informatica, le informazioni geografiche di

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cui avranno bisogno per attuare i criteri per l’utilizzo dei terreni per le produzioni italiane. Per il calcolo della riduzione delle emissioni di gas a effetto serra, gli operatori economici possono contare sulle informazioni già raccolte sulle emissioni agricole di gas ad effetto serra per regione e settore. Infine, per il sistema nazionale sarà presto in vigore, un dispositivo di riconoscimento delle organizzazioni autorizzate ad effettuare controlli indipendenti.La direttiva 2009/28 / CE sulle energie rinnovabili indica che i biocarburanti e i bioliquidi devono contribuire ad una riduzione di almeno il 35% delle emissioni di gas a effetto serra e dal 1 ° gennaio 2017, la loro quota di riduzione delle emissioni deve essere sollevato al 50%. Questa misura prevede che tali prodotti rappresentino il doppio del loro valore nel raggiungimento degli obiettivi fissati. Quindi a rispetto della Direttiva 2009/28 / CE che stabilisce i criteri di sostenibilità sui biocarburanti di prima generazione rispettando così i codici ambientali e sociali per un’economia sempre più verde, a protezione della natura , difesa della salute, e la qualità della vita ;valorizzando il settore della ricerca industriale con maggiori sgravi fiscali per i biocarburanti più virtuosi a vantaggio non solo della ricerca scientifica ma anche di un sempre maggiore sviluppo economico locale e globale.

Bibliografia

1 An engineered microbial platform for direct biofuel production from brown macroalgae A.J. Wargacki, E. Leonard, M.N. Win, D.D. Regitsky, C.N. Santos, P.B. Kim, et al.2 Marine macroalgae: an untapped resource for producing fuels and chemicals N. Wei, J. Quarterman, Y.S. Jin3 Combination of RNA sequencing and metabolite data to elucidate improved toxic compound tolerance and butanol fermentation of Clostridium acetobutylicum from wheat straw hydrolysate by supplying

sodium sulfideOriginal Research ArticleYanling Jin, Yang Fang, Mengjun Huang, Jiaolong Sun, Yuhong Huang, Xiaofeng Gao, Renqiang Li, Kaize He, Hai Zhao4 Metabolic engineering of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 for the high-yield production of a biofuel composed of an isopropanol/butanol/ethanol mixtureOriginal Research ArticleSimon Dusséaux, Christian Croux, Philippe Soucaille, Isabelle Meynial-Salles5 http://europa.eu/index_it.htm6. New biorefineries and sustainable agriculture: Increased food, biofuels, and ecosystem securityReview ArticleHong-Ge Chen, Y.-H. Percival Zhang7 Evaluating the environmental cost of biofuels policy: An illustration with bioethanolOriginal Research ArticleHugo Valin, Betina Dimaranan, Antoine Bouët8 De la biotech au biofuelRevue Francophone des Laboratoires, Volume 2009, Issue 410, March 2009, Page 109 Damien LARROQUE, DOSSIER DE PRESSE. Bioénergies : les recherches sur les biocarburants de 3ème génération 2010. p. 3 and 6.Y. Chisti. Biodiesel from microalgae; Research review paper; Biotechnology Advances 25; 2007. p. 294-306.10 Cultivation, photobioreactor design and hervasting of microalgae for biodiesel production: a critical review. Bioresource technology 102; 2011. p. 71-81. Chun-Yen Chen, Kuei-Ling Yeh, Rafika Aisyah, Duu-Long Lee and Jo-Shu Chang.

11 Réduction des émissions de CO2 au sein de l’Union européenneRevue Générale des Chemins de Fer, Volume 1999, Issue 1, January 1999, Pages 51-54 A. Viard

http://europa.eu/index_it.htm

di ISABELLA MARTUSCELLI Dipartimento di Architettura – Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II

Nuove norme per il rilancio dell’Edilizia

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TIRISE - RIvISTa InTERnazIOnalE DI STuDI EuROpEI - ANNO I, NUMERO 4 • 2015 • ISSn 2421-583X

Abstract The article analyses the new laws and regulations in the field of construction industry which surely can affect with its effect the territorial conformation of the Country.

Introduzione e ambito di applicazione

La legge n.164 dell’11 novembre 2014 ha modificato in sede di conversione, introducendo svariate modifiche, il decreto legge n. 133 del 12 settembre 2014,1 meglio conosciuto come il c.d. Decreto “Sblocca Italia”.Le principali novità introdotte da tale legge

1 Decreto legge n. 133 del 12 settembre 2014: “Misure urgenti per l’apertura dei cantieri, la realizzazione delle opere pubbliche, la digita-lizzazione del Paese, la semplificazione buro-cratica, l’emergenza del dissesto idrogeologico e per la ripresa delle attività produttive”.

riguardano il settore dell’edilizia privata e dell’urbanistica.2 Recita testualmente l’art. 17, co.1, lett. a), che “Al fine di semplificare le procedure edilizie e ridurre gli oneri a carico dei cittadini e delle imprese, nonche’ di assicurare processi di sviluppo sostenibile, con particolare riguardo al recupero del patrimonio edilizio esistente e alla riduzione del consumo di suolo, al testo unico delle disposizioni legislative e regolamentari in materia edilizia, di cui al decreto del Presidente della Repubblica 6 giugno

2 Capo V intitolato “Misure per il rilancio dell’Edilizia”, art.17 recante: “Semplificazione ed altre misure in materia edilizia”.

© Audiovisual Service EC, 1991 / Source: Eureka Slide / Photo: Carton J. C.

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2001, n. 380, sono apportate le seguenti modificazioni..”.Il Testo Unico per l’Edilizia (D.P.R. n. 380 del 6 Giugno 2001) recante i princìpi generali e le disposizioni che regolano l’attività edilizia, è stato dunque modificato dalla legge n. 164 del 2014, fermo restando, però, le norme in materia di tutela dei beni culturali ed ambientali di cui al decreto n. 42 del 2004 (c.d. Codice Urbani) e le altre normative di settore ed altresì le norme in materia di realizzazione, ampliamento, ristrutturazione e riconversione di impianti produttivi 3 (art. 1).In materia di attività edilizia4 (art. 2), le regioni esercitano la potestà legislativa concorrente con i principi statali contenuti nel testo legislativo in esame, con esclusione delle regioni a statuto speciale e le Province autonome di Trento e Bolzano le quali esercitano la loro propria potestà legislativa esclusiva, secondo gli statuti e le relative norme di attuazione.La disciplina dell’attività edilizia è competenza dei comuni, nei limiti e nel rispetto della loro autonomia statutaria e legislativa 5.L’art. 2-bis 6 prevede poi la possibilità, a favore delle regioni e le province autonome di Trento e Bolzano, di leggi in deroga in materia di limiti di distanza tra i fabbricati 7.

La tipologia di interventi edilizi

L’art. 3, co. 1 del Testo Unico per l’Edilizia recante “Definizioni degli interventi edilizi” 8 dà ampia definizione della tipologia di interventi edilizi, precisando che si intendono per: a) interventi di manutenzione ordinaria, quegli 3 V. artt. 24 e 25 del decreto legislativo 31 marzo del 1998 e norme attuative.4 Art. 117, co. 3 della Costituzione.5 V. art. 3 “Autonomia dei comuni e del-le province”, del decreto legislativo 18 agosto 2000, n. 267: “Testo Unico delle leggi degli enti locali” (a norma dell’articolo 31 della legge 3 agosto 1999, n. 265).6 Articolo introdotto dalla legge n. 98 del 2013.7 D.M. LL.PP. del 2 aprile 1968, n. 1444.8 V. legge 5 agosto 1978, n. 457, art. 31.

“interventi edilizi che riguardano le opere di riparazione, rinnovamento e sostituzione delle finiture degli edifici e quelle necessarie ad integrare o mantenere in efficienza gli impianti tecnologici esistenti”;b) interventi di manutenzione straordinaria, tutte quelle opere e/o le modifiche necessarie finalizzate a rinnovare e sostituire parti degli edifici, anche strutturali o a realizzare ed integrare i servizi igienico-sanitari e tecnologici, sempre che non alterino “la volumetria complessiva degli edifici” 9e non comportino modifiche delle destinazioni di uso”. “Nell’ambito degli interventi di manutenzione straordinaria sono ricompresi anche quelli consistenti nel frazionamento o accorpamento delle unità immobiliari con esecuzione di opere anche se comportanti la variazione delle superfici delle singole unità immobiliari nonché del carico urbanistico purchè non sia modificata la volumetria complessiva degli edifici e si mantenga l’originaria destinazione d’uso”.10c) interventi di restauro e di risanamento conservativo, quegli interventi edilizi atti a conservare il preesistente organismo edilizio e assicurandone la funzionalità “mediante un insieme sistematico di opere che, nel rispetto degli elementi tipologici, formali e strutturali dell’organismo stesso, ne consentano destinazioni d’uso con essi compatibili. Tali interventi comprendono il consolidamento, il ripristino e il rinnovo degli elementi costitutivi dell’edificio, l’inserimento degli elementi accessori e degli impianti richiesti dalle esigenze dell’uso, l’eliminazione degli elementi estranei all’organismo edilizio”;d) interventi di ristrutturazione edilizia, tutti quegli interventi che hanno come finalità la trasformazione di organismi edilizi “mediante un insieme sistematico di opere che possono portare ad un organismo edilizio in tutto o in parte diverso dal precedente”. Tali interventi comprendono il ripristino o la sostituzione di alcuni elementi costitutivi dell’edificio, l’eliminazione, la modifica e l’inserimento di nuovi elementi ed impianti.

9 Nel testo previgente era previsto, inve-ce, “i volumi e le superfici delle singole unità immobiliari”.10 Lettera così modificata dall’art. 17, co. 1, lett. a) della legge n. 164 del 2014.

LL.PP

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Nell’ambito degli interventi di ristrutturazione edilizia sono ricompresi anche quelli consistenti nella demolizione e ricostruzione con la stessa volumetria e sagoma di quello preesistente, fatte salve le sole innovazioni necessarie per l’adeguamento alla normativa antisismica 11 nonché quelli volti al ripristino di edifici o parti di essi, eventualmente crollati o demoliti, attraverso la loro ricostruzione purchè sia possibile accertarne la preesistente consistenza. Rimane fermo che, con riferimento agli immobili sottoposti a vincoli ai sensi del decreto legislativo 22 gennaio 2004, n. 42 e successive modificazioni, gli interventi di demolizione e ricostruzione e gli interventi di ripristino di edifici crollati o demoliti costituiscono interventi di ristrutturazione edilizia soltanto ove sia rispettata la medesima sagoma dell’edificio preesistente”. 12

11 Lettera così modificata ed integrata dal decreto legislativo 27 dicembre 2002, n. 301. V. anche la Circolare del Ministero Infrastrutture 7 agosto 2003, n. 4174: “Chiarimenti interpre-tativi in ordine alla inclusione dell’intervento di demolizione e ricostruzione nella categoria della ristrutturazione edilizia”.12 Lettera così modificata dal decreto legi-

e) interventi di nuova costruzione, tutti quegli interventi che comportano comunque una trasformazione edilizia e urbanistica del territorio ma che non rientri nelle categorie definite alle lettere precedenti. “Sono comunque da considerarsi tali:e.1) la costruzione di manufatti edilizi fuori terra o interrati, ovvero l’ampliamento di quelli esistenti all’esterno della sagoma esistente, fermo restando, per gli interventi pertinenziali, quanto previsto alla lettera e.6);e.2) gli interventi di urbanizzazione primaria e secondaria realizzati da soggetti diversi dal comune;e.3) la realizzazione di infrastrutture e di impianti, anche per pubblici servizi, che comporti la trasformazione in via permanente di suolo inedificato;e.4) l’installazione di torri e tralicci per impianti radio-ricetrasmittenti e di ripetitori per i servizi di telecomunicazione;e.5) l’installazione di manufatti leggeri, anche prefabbricati, e di strutture di qualsiasi genere, quali roulottes, campers, case mobili, imbarcazioni, che siano utilizzati come abitazioni, ambienti di lavoro, oppure

slativo n. 301 del 2002 e, in seguito, dall’art. 30, co. 1 della legge n. 98 del 2013.

© European Union, 2015 / Source: AFP-Services ,EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Garcia Quique

http://www.simone.it/appaltipubblici/edilizia/circ4174_2003.htm

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come depositi, magazzini e simili, e che non siano diretti a soddisfare esigenze meramente temporanee e salvo che non siano installati con temporaneo ancoraggio al suolo, all’interno di strutture ricettive all’aperto, in conformità alla normativa regionale di settore, per la sosta ed il soggiorno dei turisti 13;e.6) gli interventi pertinenziali che le norme tecniche degli strumenti urbanistici, in relazione alla zonizzazione e al pregio ambientale e paesaggistico delle aree, qualifichino come interventi di nuova costruzione, ovvero che comportino la realizzazione di un volume superiore al 20% del volume dell’edificio principale;e.7) la realizzazione di depositi di merci o di materiali, la realizzazione di impianti per attività produttive all’aperto ove comportino l’esecuzione di lavori cui consegua la trasformazione permanente del suolo inedificato;f) “interventi di ristrutturazione urbanistica”, quelli rivolti a sostituire l’esistente tessuto urbanistico edilizio con altro diverso, mediante un insieme sistematico di interventi edilizi, anche con la modificazione del disegno dei lotti, degli isolati e della rete stradale.2. Le definizioni di cui al comma 1 prevalgono sulle disposizioni degli strumenti urbanistici generali e dei regolamenti edilizi. Resta ferma la definizione di restauro prevista dall’art. 34 del decreto legislativo 29 ottobre 1999, n. 490”.14

Titoli abilitativi - L’attività edilizia liberaVa premesso che l’attività edilizia può essere totalmente libera quando riguarda quegli interventi edilizi per i quali non è richiesto il rilascio di alcun titolo abilitativo né l’invio di alcuna comunicazione oppure libera previa comunicazione inizio lavori (C.I.L.) quando è relativa a quegli interventi edilizi che possono essere eseguiti soltanto previa comunicazione al Comune dell’inizio lavori,

13 Così modificato dall’art. 41, co. 4, del-la legge n. 98 del 2013 e, successivamente, dall’art. 10-ter della legge n. 80 del 2014.14 Articolo 34, “Definizione di restauro”, ora art. 29, co. 3 del decreto legislativo n. 42 del 2004.

rispettivamente, agli art. 6, co. 1 e art. 6, commi 2 e 4 del Testo Unico per l’Edilizia del T.U.E.D..15

Recita l’art. 6, co 1, nel testo riformato, che “fatte salve le prescrizioni degli strumenti urbanistici comunali e delle altre normative di settore incidenti sull’attività edilizia (norme antisismiche, sicurezza, antincendio, igienico-sanitarie, relative all’efficienza energetica, norme di cui al Codice dei beni culturali e del paesaggio di cui al decreto legislativo n. 42 del 2004, vengono eseguiti senza il rilascio di alcun titolo abilitativo:a) gli interventi di manutenzione ordinaria di cui all’art. 3, co. 1, lett. a), ivi compresi gli interventi di installazione delle pompe di calore aria-aria di potenza termica utile nominale inferiore ai 12 KW;b) gli interventi volti all’eliminazione di barriere architettoniche che non comportino la realizzazione di rampe o di ascensori esterni, ovvero di manufatti che alterino la sagoma dell’edificio:c) le opere temporanee per attività di ricerca nel sottosuolo che abbiano carattere geognostico ad esclusione di attività di ricerca di idrocarburi e che siano eseguite in aree esterne al centro edificato;d) i movimenti di terra strettamente pertinenti all’esercizio dell’attività agricola e le pratiche agro-silvo-pastorali, compresi gli interventi su impianti idraulici agrari;e) le serre mobili stagionali, sprovviste di strutture in muratura, funzionali allo svolgimento dell’attività agricola”.16

Nuova definizione del concetto di manutenzione straordinaria

Esaminando, preliminarmente, la definizione di manutenzione straordinaria essa, nel dettato dell’art. 3 recante “Definizione degli interventi edilizi” al comma 1, lett.) b) del

15 Art. 6 “Attività edilizia libera”, come so-stituito dall’art. 5 della legge n. 73 del 2010.16 Ex art. 17 decreto legislativo n. 128 del 2006 “ L’installazione dei depositi di gas di pe-trolio liquefatti di capacità complessiva non su-periore a 13 mc è considerata, ai fini urbanistici ed edilizi, attività libera, ex art. 6 del DPR n. 380 del 2001”.

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D.P.R. n. 380 del 2001,17 prevedeva, nel testo non aggiornato, che per interventi di manutenzione straordinaria s’intendessero le opere e le modifiche necessarie per rinnovare e sostituire parti anche strutturali degli edifici e per realizzare ed integrare i servizi igienico-sanitari e tecnologici “semprechè non alterino i volumi e le superfici delle singole unità immobiliari e non comportino modifiche delle destinazioni d’uso”.18

Orbene, la norma in esame ha sostituito le parole “i volumi e le superfici delle singole unità immobiliari” con “la volumetria complessiva degli edifici”.La norma in questione ha aggiunto, alla succitata lettera del D.P.R. 380, il periodo “Nell’ambito degli interventi di manutenzione straordinaria sono ricompresi anche quelli consistenti nel frazionamento o 17 D.P.R. n. 380 del 2001: “Testo unico delle disposizioni legislative e regolamentari in materia edilizia”.18 Cfr. recente Giurisprudenza (Cons. Sta-to, Sez. V, 17 marzo 2014, n. 1326; Cons. Stato, Sez. V, 18 ottobre 2002, n. 5775; Cons. Stato, Sez. V, 23 maggio 2000, n. 2988).

accorpamento delle unita’ immobiliari con esecuzione di opere anche se comportanti la variazione delle superfici delle singole unita’ immobiliari nonche’ del carico urbanistico purche’ non sia modificata la volumetria complessiva degli edifici e si mantenga l’originaria destinazione d’ uso;..”. Si ricorda che il mutamento d’uso urbanisticamente rilevante è rappresentato da ogni forma di utilizzazione di un immobile o di una singola unità immobiliare che sia differente da quella originaria sebbene essa non comporti alcuna esecuzione di opere edilizie. Per aversi il mutamento d’uso, il diverso utilizzo deve necessariamente comportare l’assegnazione del cespite ad un’altra categoria funzionale tra quelle tassativamente elencate: residenziale; turistico-ricettiva; produttiva o direzionale; commerciale; rurale.19 Se, viceversa, ricorre un mutamento della destinazione d’uso all’interno della stessa categoria funzionale ciò viene consentito. Inoltre, la destinazione d’uso di un fabbricato o di una singola unità immobiliare si evince dalla superfice utile prevalente.

19 Art. 23-ter del D.P.R. 380 del 2001 così come riformato dalla L. 164 del 2014.

© European Union, 2014 / Source: AFP-Services ,EC - Audiovisual Service / Photo: Cohen Tal

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Dunque, dopo l’entrata in vigore di tale legge, qualsiasi intervento che comporti la ridistribuzione dei volumi internamente alle unità immobiliari di un edificio, vanno qualificati ed affrontati come interventi di manutenzione straordinaria.L’art. 17, co. 1, lett. b) della legge di conversione ha introdotto poi l’art. 3-bis,20 relativo agli “Interventi di conservazione” 21. Lo strumento urbanistico individua gli edifici esistenti non più compatibili con gli indirizzi della pianificazione e l’amministrazione comunale può promuovere la riqualificazione di tali aree mediante modalità di compensazione incidenti sull’area interessata e senza aumento della superficie coperta, in alternativa all’espropriazione. E’ evidente che, nelle more dell’attuazione del piano di riqualificazione, resti escluso per il proprietario qualsiasi intervento di demolizione o ricostruzione che non sia giustificato da improrogabili ragioni di ordine statico od igienico sanitario, bensì vengono consentiti meri interventi conservativi sugli edifici.Va evidenziato solo brevemente che appare incomprensibile per quale motivo la disciplina normativa sul punto non abbia considerato in alcun modo, in alternativa all’espropriazione o compensazione, gli attuali strumenti della ristrutturazione, l’eventuale demolizione e ricostruzione, ai fini della riqualificazione urbana ma solo rimedi come quelli contenuti nel su citato articolo.

20 Articolo introdotto dall’art. 17, co.1, lett. b, del D.P.R. 380.21 Art. 3-bis: “Lo strumento urbanistico individua gli edifici esistenti non più compatibili con gli indirizzi della pianificazione. In tal caso l’amministrazione comunale può favorire, in al-ternativa all’espropriazione, la riqualificazione delle aree attraverso forme di compensazione rispondenti al pubblico interesse e comunque rispettose dell’imparzialità e del buon andamen-to dell’azione amministrativa. Nelle more dell’at-tuazione del piano, resta salva la facoltà del proprietario di eseguire tutti gli interventi con-servativi, ad eccezione della demolizione e suc-cessiva ricostruzione non giustificata da obietti-ve ed improrogabili ragioni di ordine statico od igienico sanitario”.

Modifiche alla disciplina della comunicazione inizio lavori

Continuando la disamina del testo riformato del su citato art. 6 T.U.E.D., intitolato “Attività edilizia libera”, il secondo comma prevede che - previa comunicazione, anche per via telematica, dell’inizio dei lavori (CIL) da parte dell’interessato all’amministrazione comunale possono essere eseguiti senza alcun titolo abilitativo, i lavori di manutenzione straordinaria”.22 La norma di cui art. 6, co. 2, alla lett. a) in relazione agli interventi di manutenzione straordinaria di cui all’art. 3, co. 1, lett. b), e alla lett. e-bis) per le modifiche edilizie interne sulla superficie coperta dei fabbricati adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa e per le modifiche della destinazione d’uso dei locali adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa, è stata interamente sostituita e semplificata con la previsione della trasmissione da parte dell’interessato di una CILA, a firma di un tecnico abilitato, “il quale attesta, sotto la propria responsabilità, che i lavori sono conformi agli strumenti urbanistici approvati e ai regolamenti edilizi vigenti, nonchè che non vi è interessamento delle parti strutturali dell’edificio; la comunicazione contiene, altresì, i dati identificativi dell’impresa alla quale si intende affidare la realizzazione dei lavori”. 23.Sempre relativamente ai suddetti interventi di cui alla lett. e-bis) per i locali adibiti ad uso produttivo d’impresa, non occorre più allegare le dichiarazioni di conformità da parte dell’Agenzia per le imprese.Sempre al co. 2, lett. e-bis, riguardante le modifiche interne di carattere edilizio sulla

22 Art. 6. Co. 2, lett. a) “Gli interventi di ma-nutenzione straordinaria di cui all’art. 3, co. 1, lett. b), ivi compresa l’apertura di porte interne o lo spostamento di pareti interne, semprechè non riguardino le parti strutturali dell’edificio”. E’ stata soppressa la seguente parte dell’articolo “non comportino aumento delle unità immobi-liari e non implichino incremento dei parametri urbanistici”.23 Tale attestazione resa internamente alla Comunicazione di inizio lavori e, pertanto, non occorre più una relazione tecnica asseverata da rendere in aggiunta.

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superficie coperta dei fabbricati adibiti ad esercizio di impresa ovvero le modifiche della destinazione d’uso dei locali adibiti ad esercizio di impresa, gli interventi “non dovranno riguardare le parti strutturali”.24

L’art. 6 che prevede ora la semplice CILA con elaborato progettuale limitatamente agli interventi di manutenzione straordinaria e alle modifiche interne di carattere edilizio sulla superfice coperta dei fabbricati adibiti ad esercizio di impresa ovvero le modifiche della destinazione d’uso dei locali adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa (lett. e-bis) lascia inalterata la relazione tecnica per le ulteriori fattispecie di cui al comma 2 25.24 A tale scopo, la documentazione da trasmettere dovrà includere anche l’elaborato progettuale a corredo della comunicazione as-severata. Tale prescrizione era stata cancellata dal decreto legge ma è stata reintrodotta dal-la legge di conversione. La riforma ha esteso i contenuti dell’asseverazione a firma di tecnico abilitato il quale dovrà attestare che i lavori sono conformi agli strumenti urbanistici approvati ed al regolamento edilizio vigente, la compatibilità con le norme in materia sismica e con quelle sul rendimento energetico ed, infine, che detti lavori non interessano le parti strutturali.25 Art. 6, co. 2, lettere: b) le opere dirette a

Il successivo quinto comma dell’art. 6 è

soddisfare obiettive esigenze contingenti e tem-poranee e ad essere immediatamente rimosse al cessare della necessità e, comunque, entro un termine non superiore a novanta giorni. c) le opere di pavimentazione e di finitura di spazi esterni, anche per aree di sosta, che sia-no contenute entro l’indice di permeabilità, ove stabilito dallo strumento urbanistico comunale, ivi compresa la realizzazione di intercapedini in-teramente interrate e non accessibili, vasche di raccolta delle acque, locali tombati. d) i pannelli solari, fotovoltaici, a servizio degli edifici, da realizzare al di fuori della zona A) di cui al decreto del Ministro per i lavori pubblici 2 apri-le 1968, n. 1444; (lettera così modificata dall’art. 7, comma 3, d.lgs. n. 28 del 2011).e) le aree ludiche senza fini di lucro e gli elementi di arredo delle aree pertinenziali degli edifici; e-bis) le modifiche interne di carattere edilizio sulla superficie coperta dei fabbricati adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa, sempre che non riguardi-no le parti strutturali, ovvero le modifiche della destinazione d’uso dei locali adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa.(lettera aggiunte dall’art. 13-bis, comma 1, lette-ra a), legge n. 134 del 2012, poi così modificata dall’art. 17, comma 1, lettera c), legge n. 164 del 2014).

Immagine dal sito European Justice

d.lgs

https://e-justice.europa.eu/

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stato riformato26 in modo che la CIL o CILA, relativa agli interventi di cui al comma 2, sia valida anche come aggiornamento catastale delle avvenute mutazioni edilizie27. Ed infatti, viene stabilito che la Comunicazione di inizio lavori, eventualmente integrata anche dalla comunicazione di fine lavori, è condizione sufficiente ad ottenere le necessarie variazioni catastali senza l’adempimento che precedentemente gravava sull’interessato e sarà direttamente trasmessa dal Comune ai competenti uffici dell’Agenzia delle entrate.La riforma apportata dal Decreto al comma 6 del medesimo articolo, prevede ora semplicemente che le regioni a statuto ordinario disciplinino con legge le modalità per l’effettuazione dei relativi controlli.E’ stata poi innalzata da € 258 a € 1.000 la sanzione pecuniaria dovuta per la mancata presentazione della CIL o della CIL asseverata28.Tale sanzione è ridotta di due terzi se depositata spontaneamente in corso di esecuzione.

I Regolamenti edilizi comunali

Come sopra detto, la disciplina dell’attività edilizia spetta ai Comuni, “nell’ambito della propria autonomia statutaria e normativa di cui all’art. 3 del D.L. n. 267 del 2000”. I regolamenti edilizi comunali 29 di cui all’art. 2, co. 4 del T.U.E.D., devono contenere la disciplina delle modalità costruttive nel rispetto delle normative tecniche, estetiche, 26 Ex art. 17, c.1, lett. c), del D.L. n. 133 del 2014, convertito in L. 164 del 2014.27 “Riguardo agli interventi di cui al comma 2, la comunicazione di inizio dei lavori è valida anche ai fini dell’articolo 17, primo comma, let-tera b) del regio decreto-legge 13 aprile 1939, n.652, convertito con modificazioni, dalla legge 11 agosto 1939, n. 1249, ed è tempestivamente inoltrata da parte dell’amministrazione comuna-le ai competenti uffici dell’Agenzia delle entrate.”28 In caso di manutenzioni straordinarie o di modifiche interne sulla superficie coper-ta dei fabbricati adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa, semprechè non riguardino le parti strutturali, o di modifiche della destinazione d’uso dei locali adibiti ad esercizio d’impresa.29 Art. 33 della legge n. 1150 del 1942.

igienico- sanitarie, sicurezza degli immobili e delle pertinenze (art. 4).Il Governo, le regioni e le autonomie locali, in attuazione del principio di leale collaborazione, concludono in sede di conferenza unificata accordi ai sensi dell’art. 8 del decreto legislativo n. 281 del 1997 30 o intese ai sensi dell’art. 8 del decreto legislativo n. 131 del 2003, per l’adozione di uno schema di regolamento edilizio-tipo al fine di semplificare e uniformare le norme e gli adempimenti. 31…Il regolamento edilizio-tipo che indica i requisiti prestazionali degli edifici, con particolare riguardo alla sicurezza e al risparmio energetico è adottato dai comuni nei termini fissati dai suddetti accordi, comunque entro i termini previsti dall’art. 2 della legge 7 agosto 1990, n. 241 e successive modificazioni“ 32.Al regolamento edilizio-tipo (ovvero Regolamento Edilizio Unico) dovranno attenersi tutti i comuni nell’adozione della regolamentazione locale. Infine, allorquando il comune istituisca la Commissione edilizia, il regolamento indicherà gli interventi sottoposti al preventivo parere di tale organo consultivo.

30 Definizione ed ampliamento delle attri-buzioni della Conferenza permanente per i rap-porti tra lo Stato, le regioni e le province auto-nome di Trento e Bolzano ed unificazione, per le materie ed i compiti di interesse comune delle regioni, delle province e dei comuni, con la Con-ferenza Stato-citta’ ed autonomie locali.31 “Ai sensi dell’art. 117, co. 2, lettere e) e m), della Costituzione, tali accordi costituiscono livello essenziale delle prestazioni, concernenti la tutela della concorrenza e i diritti civili e sociali che devono essere garantiti su tutto il territorio nazionale”.32 Comma aggiunto dall’art. 17-bis, co. 1, legge n. 164 del 2014.

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