Multilinguismo e ricerca dello standard nell’Inghilterra medievale

Giovanni Iamartino (Milano)

Bergamo, 10.12.2018 hj

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(2) Piano di lavoro e prospettiva

• dall’Old English al Middle English all’(Early) Modern English;

• più fatti storico-culturali che linguistici;

• prospettiva di sociolinguistica storica;

• contatto interlinguistico e multilinguismo;

• la ricerca di uno standard linguistico attraverso la variazione:

(a) diacronica

(b) diatopica

(c) diastratica

(d) diafasica o diatipica

(e) diamesica

con diversa disponibilità di dati e rilevanza;

• da frammentazione a standard a ri-frammentazione.

• Filologia germanica e storia della lingua inglese 2

(3) Old English: le radici

• Old English o Anglo-Saxon: ca. 449 – ca. 1066 dC • Fin dall’inizio complessità linguistica: (a) Angli, Sassoni e Juti (b) sostrato celtico • Ma anche e poi: (c) influsso latino (d) influsso scandinavo (invasioni) • Predominio regno Sassone Occidentale e standard

linguistico

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(4) Angli, Sassoni e Juti sull’isola

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(5) Anglo-Saxon kingdoms

• The Heptarchy: Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia,

Nortumberland

• Political fragmentation

Linguistic fragmentation

• Predominance:

Northumbria (VII c.),

Mercia (VIII c.),

Wessex (IX-XI c.)

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(6) i Celti in Europa

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(7) – Anglosassoni e Celti

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(8) (Old) English as a Germanic language

• Alphabet: runes, Latin alphabet

• Phonology: consonants continue largely unchanged, vowels change a lot

• Morphosyntax: flexional system simplified, more rigid word order, development of function words

• Vocabulary: basic lexis of Germanic origin

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(9) OE - ALPHABET

•

• Latin alphabet

• Rune: Þ

• Irish alphabet: đ

• æ

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(10) OE - PHONOLOGY

• CONSONANTS:

- substantial changes from Germanic to OE

- large continuity from Old to Present-Day English

• VOWELS:

- large continuity from Germanic to OE

- substantial changes from Old to Present-Day English

• EXAMPLES (English vs German):

- modor/mother vs mutter, neaht/night vs nacht, deop/deep vs tief, etan/eat vs essen, muƥ/mouth vs mund

- stan/stone vs stein, beam/beam vs baum, cyning/king vs könig

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(11) OE – MORPHOSYNTAX OE as a synthetic language

rich morphology, no auxiliary verbs, no fixed word order

NOUN DECLENSION - STAN

Singular Plural

Nominative STAN STANAS

Genitive STANES STANA

Dative STANE STANUM

Accusative STAN STANAS

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STRONG VERBS

Infinitive Preterite, singular

Preterite, plural

Past participle

1st class RIDAN RAD RIDON RIDEN

3rd class A HELPAN HEALP HULPON HOLPEN

(12) OE - LEXIS • Marked Germanic character for: (a) Germanic roots of English; (b) limited contacts

with other languages during the Anglo-Saxon period; (c) wordformation strategies: ‘internal’ and ‘mixed’ methods, rather than ‘external’ method’

• Basic lexis: eorÞe, wæter, sæ, land, fæder, modor, treow, hyll, fot, hand, muÞ, toÞ

• Anglo-Saxons invaders occupy the land:

- walas (foreign, enemy, Roman) Wales, Cornwall, welsh, Walsh, Wallace, walnut

- Engla-land; Ham (village; ted. Heim); Tun (enclosure, town; ted. Zaun, hedge); burh (fortified town) Burton (burh-tun), -byrig (Salisbury, Newbury, Canterbury)

- -ing (= son of) OE cyning; -ingas (= descendants of) Reading, Worthing, Barking, Hastings; Buckingham, Nottingham, Birmingham

- Lat. via strata OE stræt, stret Stratford, Streatham; OE ford (cfr ted furt) Shalford, Bradford, Stamford, Oxford

• Derivation: unriht, andswarian, ofercuman, wiÞstandan; hunta, synful, luflic, cyningdom

• Composition: widsæ, hlaford (<hlaf + weard), nosÞyrl, flæschama

• OE hal; OE halig; *hal- + *-jan > OE hælan; *haliga > OE halga; OE hail

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(13) OE mod

• OE mod (n.)= heart, mind, spirit, boldness, courage, pride, haughiness (mood: a mental state)

• Modig (adj.) = spirited, bold, high-minded, arrogant, stiff-necked

• Modiglic (adj.) = magnanimous

• Modiglice (adv.) = boldly, proudly

• Modignes (n.) = magnanimity, pride

• Modigian (v.) = to bear oneself proudly, to rage, to be indignant

• Gemodod (adj.) = disposed, minded

• Modfull (adj.) = haughty

• Modleas (adj.) = spiritless

• Modcræft (n.) = intelligence

• Glædmodness (n.) = kindness

• Modcaru (n.) = sorrow

• Ofermod (n.) = pride 13

(14) Prestiti dal sostrato celtico

• Prestiti celtici continentali alle lingue germaniche:

- IE *reg- > Celt. ric > OE rice (cfr. German Reich) ModE bishopric

cfr. ME rich (< OF riche)

- Celt. dun OE dun down The Downes; OE of dune down

cfr It. duna; cfr Bredon, Breedon, Breedon on the Hill (celt. *bre(g)-)

• Prestiti celtici insulari dopo l’invasione anglosassone:

- brock (= badger), dun (= dark grey)

- toponimi: Celt. isca (= acqua) fiumi Axe, Exe (Exeter), Esk, Usk; stour (= forte corrente, cfr. It Stura); Avon (fiume);

Celt. Venta (città mercato) Venta Belgarum OE Wintonceaster

Winchester;

Celt. *canto- (confine, limite) Kent 14

(15) – Influsso del latino

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• Tre diverse fonti:

A) Romani tribù germaniche (ante 450 AD)

B) Romani sull’isola (55-410 AD) Celti (450-600 AD) Anglosassoni

C) Evangelizzatori latini OE (dopo 600 AD)

• Diversi momenti, diversi tipi di impatto, diverse aree semantiche

(16) Influsso latino (tipo A): Romani tribù germaniche (300-450 dC)

1) Circa 400 prestiti dal latino alle lingue germaniche

2) .

3) lat. strata OE stræt, stret (cfr ted Strasse);

lat. caupo (= oste) ceapman (Chapman, German Kaufmann), cheap, Cheapside,

Cheapstow;

lat. moneta OE mynet, ModE mint (G. Műnze) (later OF moneie ME moneye, money)

lat. caseus OE cese, ModE cheese

lat. vinum OE win, ModE wine

lat. menta OE minte, Mod E mint

lat. vallum OE weall, ModE wall

lat. discus OE disc, ModE dish

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GREEK LATIN *GERM / OE ModE GERMAN

kuriakon cirice church Kirche

diabolos diabolus deofol devil Teufel

aggelos angelus engel angel Engel

presbyteros presbyter, *prester

preost priest Priester

(17) Roman Britannia 1

• Caesar’s raids in 55 and 54 BC

• Roman conquest under Claudius, 43 AD

• No definite control over

Caledonia in the north.

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(18) Roman Britannia 2

• 40.000 people

• Streets, towns, schools, administration

• 5 main towns: Verulamium (St. Albans), Gloucester, Colchester, Lincoln, York

• Latin as 2nd language

• Use of Latin strengthened by

Celts’ christianization

(314 AD: Council of Arles,

attended by bishops from

London, York and Colchester)

• ca 410 AD: Roman troops

depart from Britain

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(19) Influsso latino (tipo B): Romani Celti Anglosassoni

• Circa 600 parole dai Romani ai Celti, poche dai Celti agli Anglosassoni

• Toponimi: - Lat. castra (= accampamento militare, poi villaggio fortificato) OE ceaster,

cæster; oggi in circa 70 toponimi: Chester, Winchester, Manchester, Chichister; Gloucester, Leicester, Worcester; Lancaster, Doncaster

- Latin vicus (= villagio) OE wic; today in Wick, Wike, Longwick, Cowick, Gatwick, Butterwick, Chiswick, Honeywick, Bewick

- Latin portus OE port

- Latin turris OE torr

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(20) Influsso latino (tipo C): Evangelizzazione Anglosassoni (dopo 600 AD)

• Riprestiti: lat. tabula eOE tæfl; lOE tabele, tablu ModE table

• Cultura: accent, (e)pistol, grammatic, magister, paper ( papyrus), philosoph, scol, studian

• Religione: altar altar, credo creda (creed), discipul, mæsse (mass), martir, non (noon, nona hora), passion

• Vari: lat. expendere to spend, organum organ, cocus (lat. class. coquus) coc (ModE cook), rosa rose, tigris tiger, camelus camel

• Calchi:

a) strutturali: god-spell per ev-angelium, ut-gonge per exodus, Halig Gast per Sanctus Spiritus;

b) semantici: Þrowung (=sofferenza) for passio, feond (=nemico) for diabolus, cniht (=ragazzo, servitore) per discipulus, witega (=saggio) per propheta 20

(21) – espansionismo scandinavo

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(22) - Danelaw

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(23) - Scandinavian loanwords 1

• Peculiar features:

(a) immigration of whole tribes/peoples

(b) military phase followed by mixing of populations

(c) common ancestry (i.e. Germanic roots) between OE and Old Norse

(d) Old Norse no written language

• Result: deep, long-lasting, and long-dated influence

• Typology of Old Norse alloglot influence:

(a) semantic loans

(b) phonological loans

(c) loanwords

(d) place-names

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(242) Scandinavian loanwords 2

(a) Semantic loans:

- OE dream (=music, joy, celebration) ON draumr ME drem, dream (=dream)

- OE eorl (=warrior, man) ON jarl ME earl (=earl, count)

(b) Phonological loans:

- germ* /k/, /g/, /sk/ ON /k/, /g/, /sk/; OE /t∫/, /j/ o /dȝ/, /∫/

- doublets: cherl/carl, yeten/geten, ȝive/give, yift/gift, ei/egg, schirt/skirt

- productive model: ME schateren ME scateren (by analogy)

- some doublets still in use: shatter / scatter, shirt / skirt, church / kirk, Yeats / gate

(c) Loanwords:

- New addition to the English lexical store: feolaga (fellow), utlaga (outlaw), wrang (wrong), hæfen (haven), scoru (score), snearu (snare), husbonda (husband); anger, bull, hap ( happy, happen), skie (sky), wing, casten (cast), gapen (gape), hitten (hit), liften (lift), till; they-their-them

- Existing OE words replaced: cnif (knife, OE seax), lagu (law, OE æw), rot (root, OE wyrt), windowe (window, OE eag-ƥyrel), calle (call, OE cleopian), take (take, OE niman)

- ON loans and OE words coexist ( semantic change): ON leg vs OE sceanca (shank), ON skin vs OE fell, hyd (fell, hide), ON deien (die) vs OE steorfan (starve)

(d) Place-names: (next slide) 24

(25) Scandinavian loanwords 3

(d) Place-names:

• -by (= inhabited place): (ca 700 place-names!)

cfr OE buan, German Bau/bauen

ModE by-law: Rugby < rok (rook) + by;

Derby < deor (deer) + by;

Ashby, Thornby, Willoughby; Ormesby, Grimsby

• -ƥorp (= small village dependent on

a bigger village) – cfr German Dorf:

Kirkthorp, Canonthorp, Monkthorp; Northorp

• -ƥwaite (= clearing, i.e. open space in a forest;

grassland surrounded with a hedge):

Thwaite, Applethwaite, Kirkthwaite, Braithwaite

• -toft (= farm): Toft, Langtoft, Moortoft

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(26) – King Alfred and West Saxon standard language

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(27) Old English Modern English?

• name, we

• fader

• rice

• ƥu

• hlaf

• yfele

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(28) La Conquista Normanna (1066) e le sue conseguenze (socio)linguistiche

• Conseguenze sociali: una nuova élite al potere • Conseguenze linguistiche: a) nessuna diretta, ma presenza anglo-normanno a) conseguenze indirette: ridotta continuità di tradizione

scritta OE; abbandono di standard OE; evidenziazione mutamenti in corso

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(29) - Arazzo di Bayeux

.

.

.

.

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Cleric, Knight, and Workman (BL, Ms. Sloane 2435, f.85)

(31) Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Parker ms f.32a year 1070

.

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(32) - The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Peterborough Ms. for 1137

This year went the King Stephen over sea to Normandy, and there was received; for that they concluded that he should be all such as the uncle was; and because he had got his treasure: but he dealed it out, and scattered it foolishly. Much had King Henry gathered, gold and silver, but no good did men for his soul thereof. When the King Stephen came to England, he held his council at Oxford; where he seized the Bishop Roger of Sarum, and Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, and the chancellor Roger, his nephew; and threw all into prison till they gave up their castles. When the traitors understood that he was a mild man, and soft, and good, and no justice executed, then did they all wonder. They had done him homage, and sworn oaths, but they no truth maintained. They were all forsworn, and forgetful of their troth; for every rich man built his castles, which they held against him: and they filled the land full of castles.

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Ðis gære for þe king Stephne ofer sæ to Normandi; & ther wes underfangen, forþi ðat hi uuenden ðat he sculde ben alsuic alse the eom wes, & for he hadde get his tresor; ac he todeld it & scatered sotlice. Micel hadde Henri king gadered gold & syluer, & na god ne dide me for his saule tharof. Þa þe king Stephne to Englaland com, þa macod he his gadering æt Oxeneford. & þar he nam þe biscop Roger of Serebyri, & Alexander biscop of Lincol & te canceler Roger, hise neues, & dide ælle in prisun til hi iafen up here castles. Þa the suikes undergæton ðat he milde man was & softe & god, & na iustise ne dide, þa diden hi alle wunder. Hi hadden him manred maked & athes suoren, ac hi nan treuthe ne heolden. Alle he wæron forsworen & here treothes forloren, for æuric rice man his castles makede & agænes him heolden; & fylden þe land ful of castles.

• Blue: remaining OE features • Red: innovations of French origin

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(34) - Multilingualism in medieval England

• Celtic languages Cornwall, Wales, Scotland, Ireland • Scandinavian languages former Danelaw region • Anglo-Norman or Norman French • Latin • English

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English

Anglo-Norman

E

nglis

h a

nd

A

nglo

-Norm

an

top

classes

Lower and middle classes

merc

hants

, baili

ffs,

s

uperv

isors

, etc

(35) Il Late Middle English e la ricerca dello standard

• Regni di Henry IV (1399-1413) , Henry V (1413-22), Henry VI (1422-61)

• Diffusione dell’inglese: Paston Letters, petizioni al Parlamento

• Gli standard:

a) Dialetto wycliffita: John Wycliffe (c.1330-84), Lollardi, trad. Bibbia, opere religiose in area East Midlands

b) First London Standard (1300-50): Essex, Greater London

c) Second London Standard (1350-1400): Chaucer, Hoccleve, documenti legali, carattere misto

d) Chancery Standard (dal 1430): da latino e francese a inglese

• William Caxton (Westminster, 1476)

• Great Vowel Shift e altri fenomeni fonologici

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(36) - John Wyclif, Bible (1382-8)

.

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(37) - Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales

.

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(38) Incoronazione di Henry IV, 1399 (da ms Cronache di Froissart)

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(39) - William Caxton, Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (Bruges, 1471)

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(40) Paston Letters: Margery Brews, Letter to a lover (1477)

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(41) Great Vowel Shift

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(42) Early Modern English phonology

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