Lettura e traduzione 2007-2008

7/31/2019 Lettura e traduzione 2007-2008

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Lettura e Traduzione per le Discipline Umanistiche 1ANNO ACCADEMICO 2007-2008

FACOLT DI LETTERE E FILOSOFIA

Dispensa per gli studenti del corso LINGUA INGLESE BFilosofia, Lettere, Storia, TARS

Geraldine LUDBROOKhttp://lettere2.unive.it/lingue/index.htm


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I am indebted to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

James Shelley for 18th Century British Aesthetics; How to do things.com for How to become ajournalist; Peter Lathan for Shakespeare and Cognition - Aristotles Legacy and ShakespeareanDrama.

Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this handout. Weshould be pleased to hear from any copyright holder whom we have been unable to contact.


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CONTENTS

1. London: The Great Fire p. 4

2. Imitation and forgery p. 6

3. Dubbing American in Italy p. 8

4. The African Foundations of New York p. 9

5. Prehistoric Britain: Barrows, stone circles, henges p. 11

6. Access to the Middle Ages: Medieval Manuscripts in Facsimile p. 13

7. Searching For Wittgenstein p. 15

8. 18th Century British Aesthetics p. 16

9. The Celtic Druids p. 18

10. The Cabinet War Rooms p. 20

11. Shakespeare and Cognition:Aristotles Legacy and Shakespearean Drama p. 22

12. Hadrians Wall p. 24

13. How to become a journalist p. 26

14. The Long Childhood p. 28


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1.London: The Great Fire

In September 1666 the heart of Englands capital, the City of London (now Londons financialdistrict) was devastated by fire. The fire started in a bakers shop in the aptly named Pudding Lane.Fires in London were common, even inevitable, given the capitals largely timber construction. Yet,

for years there had been warnings of Londons total destruction by fire: in 1559 Daniel Baker hadpredicted Londons destruction by a consuming fire. However, the greatest fear among Londonerswas not fire. Plague had killed over 68,000 people in the previous two years. Although Charles IIhad returned to Whitehall in February 1666, London remained unsafe, with deathcarts stillcommonplace.

At 2.00 am on Sunday 2nd September the workman at the house of Thomas Farynor, the Kingsbaker in Pudding Lane, smelled smoke and woke up the household. The family fled across thenearby roofs. With only narrow streets dividing wooden buildings, the fire took hold rapidly, butthe mayor was not impressed and thought it could be contained. However, by dawn London Bridgewas burning, and for the next four days the fire would destroy 373 acres of the City - from the

Tower in the East to Fleet Street in the West - and burn around 13,200 houses, and 84 churches, aswell as demolish St Pauls Cathedral. Officially only four people died, but the true toll is likely tohave been much higher.

Following decades of political and religious upheaval, the restoration in 1660 of the ProtestantCharles II ensured that suspicion lingered around republicans and Catholics. So once the fire was

beaten, paranoid xenophobia was rife, and blame for the fire fell on foreigners. The Kings Guardassaulted strangers for speaking poor English, and the Spanish Ambassador opened his house to allforeigners in fear of their lives - Protestant Dutch as well as Catholic French.

Charles travelled to Moorfields to address the 100,000 people made homeless, one-sixth ofLondons population. He declared that the fire had not been started by foreign subversive powers,

but had been an act of God. Few were convinced. A scapegoat was needed: the more foreign, thebetter. Conspiracy theories would proliferate for the next two centuries, the blame placed onwhoever seemed subversive. The Parliamentary committee reported in January 1667 that nothinghath yet been found to argue it to have been other than the hand of God upon us, a great wind, andthe season so very dry. It was not until 1831 that the inscription on the fires commemorativemonument, blaming the treachery and malice of the Popish faction, was removed. An infernocaused by a forgetful baker, fuelled by a strong wind and indecisive leadership, was blamed onCatholics for over 150 years.

From: Bruce Robinson,Red Sky at Nighthttp://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/society/great_fire_print.html


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Great Fire of London 1666: Victorian Engraving after Visscher, from Robert Chambers Book ofDays


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2. Imitation and forgery

A forged work of art can be defined as possessing the intent to deceive, usually for financial gain,by proffering an art object as representing something other than it is. Forged artworks can besubdivided as follows; deliberate imitations offered as originals; genuine objects that have been

altered by partial repainting or reworking to increase their value; early copies (not initially intendedto deceive) passed off later as originals; pastiches comprised of original parts of different works

passed off as homogeneous originals; products of a workshop that have been erroneously attributedto the master of the workshop.

Throughout the entire history of art, forgeries have been made whenever the market accommodatedand creative works were desired for collection: the Romans copied and adapted Greek sculptures,many of which were believed to be originals in later centuries. Today these copies are inmuseums, valued for what they are - art - understood both by their imitative nature and Romancontext.

Although in the 21st century viewers and critics generally conceive of artistic imitation as an artistslack of creativity and originality, Renaissance thinkers held a different opinion. Many artists, in allsorts of media, engaged in imitation of the antique styles and pieces. The fine arts in particular arefull of imitations, especially in the areas of painting and sculpture. Renaissance artists not onlyimitated Classical forms, but also each others recent works. The Latin terms imitatio and aemulatiowere coined in discussion of the contemporary reaction and adoption of antiquity.

One of the earliest forms of forgery was coin counterfeit. Coins have been counterfeited ever since670 BC, when they were minted by King Gyges of Lydia. Copies were produced by makingcastings from moulds of original coins. Various Byzantine emperors debased their coinage with

base alloys and coins were even produced in base metals and gilded in order to be passed off assolid gold. Counterfeit coins were made for a different type of individual profit by Jean Duc deBerry of France (1340-1416). An art patron and coin collector, he commissioned modern copies ofold Dutch and French coins to fill in gaps in his collection. The Italian artists Giovanni Cavino andPirro Ligorio (c. 1500-83) were master coin counterfeiters of the 16th century. This form of forgeryeventually led to the forging of works of art for profit and also exhibition. Even the highly esteemedMichelangelo had forged an antique marble cupid for his patron, Lorenzo de Medici.

Perhaps the most prolific production of art forgeries has occurred in the 19 th and 20th centuriesduring periods of avid collecting, when profits for forgers have been astronomical. The LouvreMuseum in Paris bought its gold Tiara of Saphernes for 200,000 gold francs and declared it a

genuine work of the third century BC, although it had actually been made in 1880 by the goldsmithIsrael Ruchomovsky of Odessa, Russia. The Italian artist Giovani Bastianini (1830-68) executed ingood faith a number of fine sculptures in the manner of Donatello, Verrocchio, Mino di Fiesole, andother Italian old masters. These were subsequently sold as genuine to reputable museums, includingthe Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Louvre Museum.

Perhaps the most famous art forger of all time was Alceo Dossena (1876-1936), who successfullyproduced sculptures of such high quality that they were accepted as genuine by many art critics,museum directors, and famous collectors. Apparently, Dossena did not know he was defrauding athird party, as he merely supplied work in various styles: Archaic, Hellenistic, Roman, Gothic, andRenaissance. When he discovered that aMadonna and Childhe had sold for 50,000 lire was in turn

sold for 3 million lire, he stepped forward and proclaimed that the works were modern.


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Forgery in the Internet Age

In todays world of rapid technological advances, one must consider forgery in all facets of themedia, including the Internet. How can one trust the authority of a document on the web, whenanyone who wishes can put up a website? In the print age, one was at least required to proceed

through a publisher to get ones ideas in print and thereby available to the masses. But in the digitalage, anyone can publish information or even copy anothers work and appropriate it as their own.Thus the two main concerns that the facility of web publication raises are: How can one know thatthe person that posts the work is actually the author? And how can one know that the information isvalid? We lack the necessary safeguards, quality control and regulations in this new age to preventforgers from wreaking havoc on all of us.

Thus forgery of works and authorship are of utmost concern in this day and age. The Internet and e-mail have exponentially increased the problem of validating the quality of a source or author. Howdo we know that any website is providing truth and not forged, copied, partly false, or completely

false information? But then, how can we ever trust the label? For all we know, each website sourceprovided could be forged, copied, or a fake. Therefore, until regulations and quality controls areestablished, computer users are left with only this, caveat emptor: May the user beware.

From:Notes on Imitation and Forgery http://www.umich.edu/~engtt516/forgerysource.html


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3. Dubbing American in Italy

A good deal has been written over the years about how English has influenced other languages.Vocabulary is clearly the main field of influence: other languages have adopted and adapted awhole range of English words, and nowadays many new products and trends are referred to by an

English or English-based term the world over. More subtle influences involve such aspects as wordorder, word forms, and changes in meaning. For example, permissivo (relating to permission) hasalso come to mean tolerant, behaving freely as in English. Or else direct translations are madeto provide a new concept in a foreign language: Italian has maggioranza silenziosa (the silentmajority),parola-chiave (key-word) and le pubbliche relazioni (public relations).

A very specific kind of translation from English - dubbing - has had a number of effects on foreignlanguages that are worth looking at. The world watches films and programmes that were originallymade in English. In some non-English-speaking countries they are shown with subtitles, but moreoften they are dubbed into the local language. This dubbing process is a highly skilled techniqueand often requires a rather imaginative translation if the dubbers words are to be successfully

synchronised with the actors lip movements.

A good dialogue translator is aware that some of the most noticeable lip movements come at thebeginning of speech segments, and certain consonant sounds (/m/b/p/f/v/) have distinct lipmovements. Likewise, the number of syllables in the original and translated versions should be assimilar as possible. The need for a close match becomes particularly critical for short speech items,especially short one-word expressions such as Great! When Italians want to express similarapproval, they normally say something likeMagnifico! Meraviglioso! Favoloso! orSplendido! Butnone of these are successful translations for Great! when lip and mouth movements areconsidered. Watch a few films or TV programmes in Italy that have been dubbed from English andyou will hear a Grande! voiced over a Great! This is not really a natural Italian expression, butafter years and years of hearing Grande! orGrandioso! on their screens, Italians have now begun touse them spontaneously. In the same manner, the expression Sure! is usually translated as Sicuro!(i.e. sure, secure, safe), and this perhaps explains why it seems to be gaining ground overalternatives such as Senzaltro orNaturalmente!

Pronouns are another area where we can notice imaginative translations. Although Italians usuallymiss out personal pronouns, saying sono rather than io sono for I am, dubbers will often includethe io as it gives closer lip movements. Vowel sounds are also a problem. An English expression of

pain such as Ow! or Ouch! cannot be dubbed very well with the usual ItalianAhi! orAhia!, andso a less natural sound such as Ohi! is usually employed. The ubiquitous opening Well, is

nearly always translated with b, and this generally works reasonably well. However, while wellis used by all classes of English speakers, the shortened Italian b would normally be avoided byupperclass Italian speakers, except of course on the screen. Consequently b seems to be movingup-class thanks to the influence of dubbing.

Pronunciation is a final area where the dubbing process has actually had an impact on the language.This can be seen particularly clearly with names. Whereas in the past the standard Italian

pronunciation of Canada accentuated the final syllable, the English stress in the first syllable isnow preferred. Likewise the older pronunciation of Florida with a stress on the middle syllable has

been superseded by the English stress pattern.

From: Sharon Godman and David Graddol (ed.),Redesigning English: new texts, new identitiesRoutledge London New York 1996


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4. The African Foundations of New YorkBy Jane BeresfordBBC producer ofI Too Am America

The remains of 20,000 African men, women and children have lain beneath the busy streets of NewYork for 300 years, waiting to tell their stories on the extent of slavery in the city.

In March 1992, leading African-America archaeologist Michael Blakey arrived at the burial groundin downtown Manhattan. I had read about these people documented as chattel, he said. Now Iwas going to learn about these Africans in New York as human beings. A haunting sight greetedhim. Being winter, work was taking place under a translucent plastic tent. Id really never seen anexcavation like that one, he said. There were mini excavators working and kerosene heatersgoing. By the time I got there, about a dozen burials were in the process of being exposed. Onecould see very clearly the positions that were meant to put them at peace when they were buried.Many had their arms crossed. One female skeleton had tiny bones by her side, suggesting a woman

cradling a new born child.

They had devastating secrets to share, information that would reveal the extent of slavery in NewYork. Quite early on, we found the skull and thorax of an individual with filed or culturallymodified teeth - and that stunned me because that is very rare, Mr Blakey said. There are onlyabout nine skeletons in the whole of the Americas that have been discovered with filed teeth, hesaid. In the African burial ground we found at least 27 individuals with filed teeth. This suggestedthese people had come to New York directly from Africa before importation was banned in 1808and American slaveholders started breeding slaves on the plantations in the South.

These kinds of irreversible identifiers put people at risk who might want to escape, Mr Blakey

said. Runaway adverts in newspapers seeking to re-capture the many escaped enslaved Africansoften mentioned dental modification, he said - so no one would not choose to have that kind ofmarker.

Worked to death?But these enslaved Africans helped create the city of New York. They worked as stevedores in thedocks and as labourers building the fortification known as Wall Street, which protected the cityagainst attack from Native Americans. Evidence from the burial site revealed, for the first time, theenormous human cost of such work. Half of the remains were of children under the age of 12.Women were usually dead by 40. It seems that it was cost effective for slave traders to work

people to death and then simply to replace them, so they sought to get Africans who were as young

as possible, but ready to work, said Mr Blakey.

From royalty to slavery?The woman designated Burial 340 was a very intriguing person. She was in her 40s - and for the

burial ground population that makes her kind of old, said archaeologist Sherrill Wilson, nowdirector of interpretation at the African Burial Ground. Around her waist the woman wore a belt ofover 100 beads and cowrie shells, she said. In some parts of Africa in the 1700s, its illegal for

people who are not members of royal families to own even one of these beads - and she has over100 buried with her, she added.

Such treasures are known to belong to Akan-speaking people. Had this woman been born intoroyalty in Ghana and died a slave in New York City? And who chose to bury her with the waist beltof beads? These are very valuable items, said Ms Wilson. It implies that whoever buried her...could have chosen to sell those items to feed themselves - but they made the choice to bury them


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with her. Perhaps it was a tradition, a rite, or an act of defiance against those who had enslaved awoman of noble birth.

The skeletons of 18th Century slaves have spoken to those living free today to remind us that NewYork - one of the worlds great immigrant cities - destroyed as well as created destinies.

From: Jane Beresford, BBC NEWS: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/americas/3659397.stmPublished: 2004/04/26 11:36:18 GMT


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5. Prehistoric Britain: Barrows, stone circles, henges

Causewayed camps - These are some of the oldest remains in the English landscape, dating fromaround 3500 B.C. They consist of a series of from one to four concentric rings of banks and ditchesenclosing an area up to 9 hectares. The ditches are bridged by ramps of earth, or causeways, in

several places, sometimes with corresponding gaps in the banks to form an obvious place of entry.Archaeologists have named these enclosures camps, but there is little evidence of even atemporary dwelling within the enclosed space. They were probably used as a multi-purposegathering place, combining the functions of livestock pen, trading centre, church, feasting area, andceremonial arena. The best preserved and perhaps the most important camp is Windmill Hill nearAvebury in Wiltshire.

Long barrows - These are Neolithic (New Stone Age) tombs which are roughly contemporary withthe causewayed camps. There are two main types of long barrows; those made entirely of earth,called earthen long barrows, and those made with a chamber of large stones, called megalithic or

chambered long barrows. The long barrows were communaltombs, holding from one to fifty adultsand children. They were also centres of religious activity around a cult of the dead and fertility. The

bones of the dead were often used in ceremonies performed at the recessed entrance to the barrow.The long barrows, ranging up to 350 feet in length, were oriented with the large end pointingroughly east, and the tapering small end pointing west. It has been speculated that this orientationhad to do with the importance of the rising sun in Neolithic religions. The actual burials are alwaysat the large, eastern end of the barrows. Some of the more rewarding long barrows to visit areWatlands Smithy, in Oxfordshire, West Kennet in Wiltshire, and Belas Knap in Gloucestershire.

Stone Circles - Beginning as early as 3300 B.C. standing stones, often in the form of a circle orflattened oval, began to be erected around the British Isles. At least 900 of them still exist, thoughmany more must have been destroyed in the march of progress. The most famous is Stonehenge inWiltshire. Most of the stone circles would have been an evolved form of the earlier henges andcausewayed camps, functioning as multi-purpose tribal gathering places for ritual observanceshaving to do with the seasons and the fertility of the earth. Aside from Stonehenge, the mostvisitable stone circles are Avebury in Wiltshire, Castlerigg in Cumbria, and the Rollright Stones inOxfordshire.

Hill figures - Throughout England, usually on the slopes of the chalk hills of the south, are incisedfigures of huge proportions cut into the earth. Often visible for miles around, these hill figures giveoff an air of ancient sanctity., but many of the hill figures are recent copies, laid out in the past 150

years. Of the legitimate hill figures, the most famous are, unfortunately, of an indeterminate age.The Giant of Cerne Abbas in Dorset, and the Long Man of Wilmington, in Kent, have defied thebest efforts of archaeologists to date them. Conjecture ranges from the Iron Age to Saxon times.The White Horse of Uffington has recently been dated to 2000 B.C., a good millennium older thanhad been thought.

Henges - Basically a simple bank and ditch enclosing an area of land. The bank is outside the ditch,so they would not have been defensive enclosures, but were more likely a form of religious andceremonial gathering place. The henges are younger than causewayed camps, with the oldest builtabout 3300 B.C. The largest henges enclose up to 12 hectares. Some, though not all henges havestone circles within them, while others show remains of wooden rings. The first phase of

Stonehenge belongs to this class of monument, though it has now been overshadowed by thefamous standing stones which were added at several later dates.


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Hill Forts - Dating from the Iron Age (approximately 700 B.C. to 50 A.D.) these hilltop enclosuresare the youngest of the prehistoric remains to be seen. They are defensive structures enclosing high

places with rings of ditches and banks. Often there were wooden or stone walls atop the banks as afurther barrier. In some cases a series of concentric ditches and banks were built. The hill forts donot seem to have been places of permanent settlement, but may have been emergency assembly

points for tribes, or the case of the smaller forts, even single families. There are thousands of hillforts throughout the British Isles in various stages of repair, though the most spectacular is withouta doubt Maiden Castle in Dorset, while Uffington in Oxfordshire is well worth a visit.

From: http://www.britainexpress.com/History/prehistoric_monuments.htm


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6. Access to the Middle Ages: Medieval Manuscripts in Facsimile

Up until the end of the Middle Ages, when the art of printing first allowed a measure of massproduction, books were made by hand one at a time. Every manuscript is therefore unique: evenwhen the scribes and artists copied a model text or image, the result is marked by their own taste

and training, not to mention the wishes of their patron. The medieval manuscripts that survive arealso precious because of the mere fact of being old; they are witnesses to a culture which prevaileda long time ago (from about AD 500 to AD 1500) and strongly influenced the world in which wenow live. In addition to transmitting the texts which interested people at that time, many of thesemanuscripts still provide much aesthetic pleasure, due to their fine layout and script, and of course,the illuminations.

Manuscripts in FacsimileArt history, as well as interest in the Middle Ages, blossomed during the nineteenth century. Therewas a demand for reproductions of medieval art, and also for samples of the various scripts. Whilethe standards and expectations for manuscript reproductions -- or facsimiles -- have certainly risensince the nineteenth century, the central goal has remained the same: to facilitate access tomanuscripts that are unique in their visual and historical characteristics and are dispersed in librariesthroughout the world.

Manuscripts need to be carefully preserved, and libraries must be quite restrictive in allowingscholars to consult the originals. Much of the work that needs to be done -- studying the layout,comparing scripts, etc. -- can be done with an accurate facsimile without the risk of damage to theoriginal. Moreover, the publication of a facsimile usually involves the simultaneous publication of acompanion volume bringing together and updating the scholarship on various aspects of theoriginal. And, of course, facsimiles also appeal to those who love beautiful books for their own

sake.Facsimile TechnologyLithography (first developed around 1800) soon became the preferred process in the production offacsimiles. A drawing is first made of the desired image, which is then traced in reverse onto asmooth stone slab (lithos means stone in Greek); in order to accommodate cylindrical rotary

presses, the stone was eventually replaced by plates of more flexible metal alloys. The chemicalsused in this process ensure that the areas to be printed are completely ink-repellent. After the plateis inked, the image is printed on paper.

Chromolithography, the adaptation of this process to the production of colour facsimiles, was first

used in the 1830s, and yielded some lovely images when it was perfected. It still depended,however, on the care and accuracy of the artist reproducing the original image, so that it did notalways satisfy the rising expectations for realistic reproduction fanned by the birth of photographyin the late nineteenth century. It took a long time to develop the techniques and chemical processeswhich allowed the transfer of the photographed image onto the printers plate.

In some form or other, photolithography is now the most commonly used method for high-qualityreproduction, and even though computers are often called upon to assist in the task, the humanelement remains of paramount importance for obtaining good results, not least the care of the

photographer who first records the image.

TheBook of Kells is a Gospel Book, which means that it contains the full text of the four Gospels,preceded by some traditional introductory materials. Such books were usually elaboratelyilluminated in the early Middle Ages; this one is especially ornate. Duplicating such complex


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designs involves the intermingling of photographic, printing and computer technology with thecraftsmanship provided by experienced lithographers.

First, a special device was invented for the sole purpose of photographing the Book of Kells, whichbecause of its fragility could neither be unbound nor pressed under glass for the purpose of taking

photographs. The new device uses gentle suction to pull the manuscript pages flat so thatphotographs can be taken at an angle.

When a photograph is taken, a colour transparency is made and examined under a computerscanner, which analyzes the shapes and colours of the design. The computer then assigns numberscorresponding to formulas for the mixing of inks which are sent to a printing machine.

A preliminary facsimile print is thus made for each page, which is then flown to Dublin forcomparison with the original. As many as five lithographers, printers, and photographers travel witheach page to Dublin and note necessary changes in the intensity and visual quality of colours thatwere not picked up by the computer.

After hundreds of refinements are made for each page, the printing machine is programmed to printa definitive facsimile page. Tiny holes in the original manuscript -- imperfections in the original

parchment or the result of aging -- are cut into the facsimile by another machine, which also cutseach page to the original, irregular outline of the parchment.

Despite the accuracy of this process, facsimile technology is as yet unable to duplicate the sensationof parchment. Original parchment, usually the skin of a sheep or a goat, is leathery to the touch andlook, has a smooth side and a rougher hair side, and is uneven in texture, sometimes being thin tothe point of translucency.

Facsimile pages made of paper, by contrast, are of uniform thickness, and all sensual subtleties suchas translucency, softness or thickness of texture, are lost.

Adapted from The New York Times, June 2, 1987

http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/facsimiles.html


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7. Searching For WittgensteinDavid Breeden

Somebody told me Wittgensteins graveWas just over there, up the street

Past downtown Cambridge. How could IAfter three pints of ale refuse to find

The daddy of language as we use it?I went, looking. For Wittgensteins trace,The man who got the metaphysical slap

Reading Tolstoy in the trenches. PrisonerOf war. Schoolmaster. Man who gaveHis living away. Who did a one-eighty

In his beliefs without apology. I crossedThe Cam on a bridge, searched the alleys.Backtracked. Began to suspect Wittgensteins

Grave is in Cambridge might be a linguisticGame, a situation beyond the path of myExpectations. Every day is April Fools Day,After all, when we havent read the rules

Of the game. Wittgensteins grave, an old

Lady said when I asked. I dont know.Theres a graveyard tucked away there.

I searched the overgrowth. The mangledStones. Searched. At last, a flat white stone.Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951 is all it

said. Enough. Enough for the philosopherof language as we use it. Enough to saytheres nothing here but a brisk wandering.

From: David Breeden, Stigmata. March Street Press, 2006


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8. 18th Century British AestheticsFirst published Thu 6 Jul, 2006

18th-century British aesthetics addressed itself to a variety of questions: What is the nature of taste?What is the nature of beauty? Is there is a standard of taste and of beauty? What is the relation

between the beauty of nature and that of artistic representation? What is the relation between onefine art and another, and how ought the fine arts be ranked one against another? What is the natureof the sublime and ought it be ranked with the beautiful? What is the nature of the picturesque andought it be ranked with the beautiful and the sublime? What is the nature of genius and what is itsrelation to taste?

Although none of these questions was peripheral to 18th-century British aesthetics, not all wereequally central. The question on which the others tended to turn was the question concerning thenature of taste. But this question was not simply how best generally to define taste. Everyone seemsto have been in at least rough agreement with Joseph Addisons early definition of taste as thatfaculty of soul, which discerns the beauties of an author with pleasure, and the imperfections withdislike (Addison and Steele 1879, no. 409). But agreeing with Addison meant agreeing only to usetaste to refer to that faculty and to acknowledge that such discerning has something of the

phenomenology of sensation. The central question was how to think of taste so defined. Is taste ahigher, cognitive faculty, akin perhaps to reason, with objects of a primarily intellectual nature? Oris it a lower, bodily faculty, more akin to the five bodily senses, and with objects of a primarilymaterial nature? The major theories that arose in response to this question can be grouped into threemain lineages:

(a) internal-sense theories, of which the theories of Shaftesbury (1711), Hutcheson (1725), and Reid(1785) are representative;

(b) imagination theories, of which theories of Addison (1712) and Burke (1757/59) arerepresentative; and

(c) association theories, of which the theories of Gerard (1757) and Alison (1790) arerepresentative.

Shelley, J., 18th Century British Aesthetics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)URL =.


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David Hume, Of the Standard of Taste (1757)

Many and frequent are the defects in the internal organs which prevent or weaken the influence ofthose general principles, on which depends our sentiment of beauty or deformity. Though someobjects, by the structure of the mind, be naturally calculated to give pleasure, it is not to be

expected, that in every individual the pleasure will be equally felt. Particular incidents andsituations occur, which either throw a false light on the objects, or hinder the true from conveying tothe imagination the proper sentiment and perception.

One obvious cause, why many feel not the proper sentiment of beauty, is the want of that delicacyof imagination, which is requisite to convey a sensibility of those finer emotions. This delicacyeveryone pretends to: everyone talks about it; and would reduce every kind of taste or sentiment toits standard. But as our intention in this essay is to mingle some light of the understanding with thefeeling of the sentiment, it will be proper to give a more accurate definition of delicacy than has

been hitherto attempted....

Joseph Addison, The Pleasures of the Imagination in The Spectator, No. 416, July 2, 1712

It is possible this defect ofimagination [the inability to get ones brain around the very, very largeor the very, very tiny] may not be in the soul itself but as it acts in conjunction with the body.Perhaps there may not be room in the brain for such a variety of impression, or the animal spiritsmay be incapable of figuring them in such a manner as is necessary to excite so very large orminute ideas. However it be, we may well suppose that beings of a higher nature very much excelus in this respect, as it is probable the soul of man will be infinitely more perfect hereafter in thisfaculty - as well as in all the rest - insomuch that perhaps the imagination will be able to keep pacewith understanding and to form in itself distinct ideas of all the different modes and quantities ofspace.

John Locke,An Essay Concerning Human Understanding(1690)

If it were the design of my present undertaking, to enquire into the natural causes and manner ofperception, I should offer this as a reason why a privative cause might, in some cases as least,produce a positive idea, viz. That all sensation being produced in us, only by different degrees and

modes of motion in our animal spirits, variously agitated by external objects, the abatement of anyformer motion, must necessarily produce a new sensation, as the variation or increase of it; and sointroduce a new idea, which depends only on a different motion of the animal spirits in that organ.


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9. The Celtic Druids

John Michell

The question of who invaded Britain in prehistoric times, and when these

incursions took place, was much debated by earlier generations of scholars.Bloody battles were imagined, in which one race virtually exterminated anotherand populated the country anew. Mysterious Beaker folk were said to havearrived in the third millennium B.C. introducing metalwork and burying theirchiefs in barrow tombs along with their favorite beakers. After them came theCelts; around 600 B.C. was the accepted date for their appearance in Britain.

The nature of these invasions and their supposed dates are all now disputed.Archaeological science earlier in this century was much concerned with racial

types, and it was fashionable to argue that successive invaders prevailed because they were ofsuperior stock to the natives. At the root of these theories was Darwins theory of evolution and

belief in progress. The influence of such theories has now waned, and scholars are more inclined toregard social changes as being produced by migrations of culture at least as much as by warfare. Inancient times, as today, new ideas spread quickly enough around the world without violence. Nor isthere any more certainty about the date of the Celts arrival. One can speak of Celtic culture andlanguages, but there is no single Celtic race; Celtic speakers vary in appearance from short andswarthy to tall and fair. Evidence of Celtic culture appears in Britain from the second millenniumB.C., and it is now suggested that the Celtic priesthood could have been responsible for theStonehenge temple, built in about 2000 B.C.

Celtic society in Britain preserved many features from the previous order, including shrines and

feast days. Its calendar combined lunar and solar cycles, as in megalithic times. The social structurewas similar to that advocated by Plato, based on a religious cosmology and democratic idealism.Each tribe had its own territory with fixed borders, and that land, held by the tribe as a whole,consisted of forest and wilderness, common lands and agricultural holdings.

Under a complicated system of land tenure, everyones rights and obligations were carefullydefined. Some of the land was worked in common for the chieftain, the priests, and the old, poor,and sick tribesfolk; the rest was apportioned as family farms. Grazing and foraging rights wereshared on the common lands. Much of the tribal business was conducted at annual assemblies whereland disputes were decided, petty offenders were tried, and chiefs and officials, both male andfemale, were appointed by popular vote.

A great many old farmsteads in Britain, today, are on Celtic sites. During his raid on Celtic Britainin 55 B.C., Julius Caesar commented on its high population and numerous farms and cattle. Theunifying bond between all the Celtic tribes was their common priesthood, the Druids. Their efforts

preserved common culture, religion, history, laws, scholarship, and science. They had paramountauthority over every tribal chief and, since their office was sacred, they could move where theywanted. settling disputes and stopping battles by compelling the rival parties to arbitration.

They managed the higher legal system and the courts of appeal, and their colleges in Britain werefamous throughout the Continent. Up to twenty years of oral instruction and memorizing wasrequired of a pupil before being admitted into their order. Minstrels and bards were educated by the

Druids for similar periods.


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Knowledge of the Druids comes directly from classical writers of their time. They were comparedto the learned priesthoods of antiquity, the Indian Brahmins, the Pythagoreans, and the Chaldeanastronomers of Babylon. Caesar wrote that they

know much about the stars and celestial motions, and about the size of the earth and

universe, and about the essential nature of things, and about the powers and authority ofthe immortal gods; and these things they teach to their pupils.

They also taught the traditional doctrine of the souls immortality. They must have professeddetailed knowledge of the workings of reincarnation, for one writer said that they allowed debtsincurred in one lifetime to be repaid in the next.

A significant remark of Caesars was that Druidism originated in Britain, which was its stronghold.Indeed, it has all the appearance of a native religion, being deeply rooted in the primeval nativeculture. Its myths and heroic legends are related to the ancient holy places of Britain, and they maylargely have been adapted from much earlier traditions. In Celtic, as in all previous times, the same

holy wells and nature shrines were visited on certain days for their spiritual virtues. The overallpattern of life was scarcely changed. In the course of time, society became more structured andelaborate and the Druid laws more rigid, but the beginning of the Celtic period in Britain wasevidently not marked by any major break in tradition.

Nor was there any great shift in population; the British today, even in the so-called Celtic lands, arepredominantly of native Mesolithic ancestry. The Druids religion and science also have theappearance of belonging to an earlier Britain. Their knowledge of astronomy may have descendedfrom the priests of megalithic times, together with the spiritual secrets of the landscape.

Yet there is an obvious difference between the Celtic Druids and the megalithic priests before them.The Druids abandoned the great stone temples and reverted to the old natural shrines, the springsand groves where they held their rituals. A religious reformation is here implied. It is characteristicof state priesthoods that their spiritual powers wane as their temporal authority grows; and the lessconfidence they inspire, the more tributes and sacrifices they demand of the people In its latter daysthe rule of the megalithic priesthood probably became so onerous that it was overthrown.

Whether as a native development or prompted by outside influences, a spiritual revival seems tohave occurred in Britain in about 2000 B.C. with the building of the cosmic temple of Stonehengeand the first evidences of Celtic culture. Stonehenge is a unique monument, a symbol of a newrevelation. The tendency in modern scholarship is to see it once more as the temple of the Druids, If

so, it proclaims the high ideals on which Druidism in Britain was founded.

From: Britannia The Celtic Durids, http://www.britannia.com/wonder/michell2.html


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10. The Cabinet War Rooms

Among the many new weapons and threats which the First World War introduced to mankind wasthe aerial bombardment of cities: the attempt to destroy centres of commerce, civilian life and,above all, government, which until then had been remote from the physical impact of conflict. The

bombing of undefended cities was practised during the First World War and the Spanish Civil War,causing many civilian casualties

The fear that cities, and particularly London, would be the first targets of an enemy conducting awar against Great Britain troubled successive British governments in the 1920s and 1930s. Itseemed that the nightmare of mass slaughter of civilians and the destruction of ordered governmentmight be realised and the question became more urgent as to how the Prime Minister, his Cabinetand the central core of the military command could be protected in the event of a war involving theEuropean powers.

RAF planners drew a horrifying picture of 600 tons of bombs raining down on the capital, causing200,000 casualties in just the first week of a war. Schemes for the evacuation of the Prime Minister,the Cabinet, and its administrative machinery were prepared as early as the 1920s. Numerouscompeting schemes were studied, costed and even constructed throughout the 1930s, among themthe adaptation of basement offices and the tunnelling of deep shelters in central London and in thecapitals north-west suburbs.

The site chosen was nothing grander than the basement chambers of the Office of Works buildingwhich faced St. Jamess Park and Horseguards Road on one side and Great George Street on theother. Known properly as the New Public Offices - so called when it was constructed at the turn ofthe century - but referred to throughout the war simply as George Street, this building offered the

strongest structure of any in Whitehall and was conveniently situated between Parliament and thePrime Ministers office-residence at Number 10 Downing Street.

Work began in June 1938 on adapting these humble storage areas, ten feet below ground, to housethe central core of government and a unique military information centre to serve the Prime Ministerand the Chief of Staff of the air, naval and land forces. The events of the Munich crisis in the earlyautumn speeded up the process.

Seen by most planners as no more than temporary, the rooms were constructed under the watchfuleye of Major-General Sir Hastings (later Lord) Ismay, assisted by Major (later Major-General SirLeslie) Hollis, and became fully operational on 27 August 1939, exactly a week before the German

invasion of Poland and Britains declaration of war. This temporary measure was to serve as thecentral shelter for government and the military strategists for the next six years.

With the surrender of the Japanese forces in the Far East in August 1945, the Rooms were no longerneeded and, on 16 August 1945, the lights in the Central Map Room were switched off for the veryfirst time since the start of the war and the door was locked. This room, its annexe, Churchillsoffice-bedroom and the Cabinet Room were then left intact and undisturbed until an announcementin the Parliament in 1948 ensured their preservation as an historic site.

Restricted access was subsequently possible, but few were even aware of the existence of thispreviously top secret installation and it was only in 1981 when the Prime Minister, Margaret

Thatcher, decided that the site should be made more easily accessible that its history became morewidely known.


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During the next three years the Imperial War Museum and the Department of the Environmentarranged for the careful preservation and restoration of the complex and made the adaptations whichwere necessary to give visitors an intimate view of the contents of the Rooms and the routines oflife in them.

http://cwr.iwm.org.uk/server/show/nav.00f00k


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11. Shakespeare and Cognition - Aristotles Legacy and Shakespearean Dramaby Arthur F KinneyRoutledge16.99

In his previous bookShakespeares Webs Kinney examined the use of stage props in Shakespearestheatre. He now turns his attention to those objects and images - particularly crowns, bells, ringsand wills - that are visible to the audience only in their imaginations, mention of which sparksmemories of the same or similar objects together with their cultural/emotional connotations.

Aristotles Metaphysics opens with the words All men by nature desire to know, and thephilosopher goes on to posit that knowledge is gained by the process of sight, perception andmemory. As Kinney says, We enlarge on this when we claim knowledge is the vision of something that is processed by the brain along neural pathways and across synapses worn down byfrequent usage. The fact that memories of a particular object or event change slightly every timethey are retrieved leaves plenty of scope for ambiguity and reinterpretation, and Shakespeare writeshis plays in such a way that certain key moments have potentially conflicted meanings, that thereis only indeterminacy at the heart of the most lasting drama.

One such key moment is Julius Caesars off-stage refusal of a crown. But what exactly is thisunseen crown, or one of these coronets as Casca describes it? Is Brutus correct in assuming thatCaesar intends to accept the offer of kingship on the Ides of March? If we assume that Mark Antonydid in fact present Caesar with a crown, it could have been one of laurel in recognition of his victoryover Pompey. This unseen incident is what makes Brutus decide to kill Caesar, but as Kinney pointsout, in the seventeenth century coronets were worn by earls, not by kings - and Shakespeare wasalways careful to differentiate between the two.

Off-stage bells also play an important role in Shakespeare, particularly in Macbeth. Kinneycontends that memories of Englands recent Catholic past, in which the ringing of a bell duringmass signified sacred acts performed by ordained persons, may have influenced audiencesresponse to the scene in which the bell rung by Lady Macbeth to tell her husband that his drink isready is interpreted by him as the bell that signals the time for him to murder the saintly Duncan.

Kinneys chapter on rings is particularly interesting. Rings appear in many of Shakespeares playsbut never more poignantly than in The Merchant of Venice, in which Shylocks runaway daughterJessica steals the turquoise ring given to him - possibly as a betrothal gift - by his late wife Leah. Toadd insult to injury Jessica exchanges it for a monkey, a symbol of lust. Kinney reminds us that

Jewish lineage passes through the female line, so because of Jessicas conversion Shylocksdescendants will be Christians. It is the loss of this treasured ring, unseen by the audience, thatdetermines Shylock to make Antonios pound of flesh, formerly an obviously absurd condition,into gruesome reality.

Finally, Kinney discusses Shakespeares use of wills. Primogeniture, the notorious wardship systemand illegitimacy were topics of keen interest in Shakespeares lifetime, so it is no wonder thatabsent wills and present heirs feature so prominently in his work. The plots ofAlls Well,As You

Like It, The Merchant of Venice - to name but a few - revolve around the power of a dead parent orguardian over a young person. And of course, the history plays would be a great deal shorterwithout the themes of usurpation and bastardy

Shakespeare and Cognition is a fascinating and wide-ranging examination of why his plays, whilstrooted in the late sixteenth-early seventeenth century, have retained their appeal for four centuries.


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In Kinneys words, Shakespeares key moments have potentially conflicted meanings, apparentlyendless readings and controversy that makes his plays appreciated both by native English speakersand by those in states unborn and accents yet unknown.

J D Atkinson

From: British Theatre Guide, http://www.britishtheatreguide.info/articles/171006.htm

King Henry IV. John Stow, The Chronicles of England, [1580]


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12. Hadrians Wall

Frontier of the Roman EmpireHadrians Wall is the most important monument built by the Romans in Britain. Internationallycelebrated as a World Heritage Site, it is the best known frontier in the entire Roman Empire, and

stands as a reminder of past glories of one of the worlds greatest civilisations. Being there stillinvokes a sense of standing at the edge of the world.

Spanning nearly 2000 years of history, a visit to Hadrians Wall is a must for anyone living in orvisiting the North of England. Forts, museums and events bring Roman history to life, walks leadyou through spectacular countryside. Time spent exploring this unique Roman heritage in its ever-changing setting will leave you with an unparalleled sense of awe and wonder.

Who Built the Wall and Why?The Wall was built by order of the Emperor Hadrian, who came to Britain in AD 122. Over the nextsix years, the army built a wall 80 Roman miles long (117km or 73 modern miles), some 5 metres(15 feet) high, east to west from Wallsend to Bowness.

Hadrians Roman biographer says that the Wall was built to separate the Romans from theBarbarians. By the early 400s, the empire had declined and Britain was abandoned.

The Wall became derelict and stones were re-used in local building and field walls. What we seetoday is all the more precious for being the last remains of such an incredible Roman structure.

A project is currently being carried out by the Aerial Survey of English Heritage, mapping theentire length of the Wall and all archaeological features in its vicinity from aerial photographs. The

results of the project will help inform the management plan for the World Heritage Site covering theWall.

Every footstep counts, taking care of the WallDuring the winter months the World Heritage Site is an especially fragile environment. You canhelp protect one of the great wonders of the world by following the advice below.

Always keep to the signed path Visit the organised paying sites, which are more robust and can accommodate visitors, but

please avoid walking alongside the Wall when the ground is very wet. Please walk beside the wall and not on it Respect livestock and land Keep dogs on a lead Use public transport whenever you can

From: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.875

Building the Wall

Hadrian came to Britain in AD 122 determined to make the troubled province secure. His plannedwall, running from the Tyne to the Solway, was a means of controlling northern Britain, both northand south of the frontier, for the areas on each side were equally unsettled. The wall would create a

powerful chain of military bases, which could be supplied by sea and river in the event of rebellion.


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Hadrians original plan was that his wall would be ten Roman feet (around 3m) thick, with a smallfort and gateway (milecastle) every mile, and two look-out turrets between each pair of milecastles.Most of the troops would be based in large forts a mile behind the wall, along the Stanegate - theRoman road between the Tyne and Solway.

The wall was built by the soldiers of the three legions based in Britain, the II Augusta, VI Victrix(Victorious) and XX Valeria Victrix (Valorous Victorious) - each building stretches of around 5-6miles (8-10km) at a time. They began in the east, and gradually worked their way west. Each legionhad its own distinctive style of building, which can be seen in the three different types of milecastle,varying in plan and in the form of the gateway. While the eastern three-fifths of the wall was builtin stone, the western two-fifths was originally made from turf, later replaced with stone. North ofthe wall, apart from in places where it ran along high crags, they dug a defensive ditch.

When construction was well advanced, changes were made to the plan. A dozen large garrison fortswere placed along the line of the wall, which was also narrowed by two feet, to speed upconstruction. This suggests that the soldiers had met opposition from the local tribes, and needed to

defend themselves while they continued their building work. Another late addition was a wide roadrunning immediately behind the wall, defended on its south side by the vallum, a ditch flanked byearth embankments.

Hadrians Wall was never thought of as an absolute barrier, but as a way of supervising themovement of local tribes, like a modern border checkpoint. The Romans also thought of landsimmediately north of the wall as under their control, for they built seven outpost forts here.

From: Hadrians Wall, http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/hadrian-s-wall/iconfolder.2006-02-24.2691242264/why-was-the-wall-built


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13. How To Become a JournalistElizabeth GraceMonday, May 15, 2006

The world of journalism can be very exciting. Journalists are on the cutting edge of local and global

events helping to keep the world informed about both hard news and gossip. Here are a few tips tobecoming a journalist:

Education comes first. A degree in journalism, English or communications is beneficial for thosewishing to pursue a career in journalism. In addition to helping you gain the necessary knowledge,many universities offer job placement services to new graduates and alumni. Some journalists areable to find employment without the benefit of a college degree, but most often, those jobs are atcommunity newsapers or very small publications.

If you are hoping to work for a large publication or production company, your best bet is a solideducation. Attending journalism school, also called J-school, is an investment in your future.

Enrolling in shortcut programs, such as seminars and classes offering certificates of completion,although tempting, should be avoided. Additionally, be wary of online universities that promise adegree based on life experience. Many of these are not affiliated in any way with an accrediteduniversity. There are a number of good online colleges, but most--if not all--are sister schools to a

brick and mortar university. Publishers, especially those with worldwide recognition, will respectyour commitment to getting a solid education.

Since your salary will increase with each level of education that you complete, it is wise to look foremployment with a mid-sized publisher after completing your bachelors degree. At that educationlevel, many employers will be able to meet your salary expectations, opening up a nice variety ofoptions for your first job in journalism. As you continue to pursue an advanced degree, you will bemaking many valuable contacts through your work for future job opportunities. This combination ofactively working your craft as you advance your education is your best recipe for success.

Pick a specialty. Jobs in journalism vary immensely, so it is important to decide exactly what pathyou wish to take. Here are just a few types of journalists:

Newspaper reporters cover stories for community, metropolitan or national publications. Stories areoften fast-breaking, so you must be flexible and able to think on your feet. Deadlines are typicallytight, so be prepared to write with speed and accuracy.

Investigative reporters are employed by newspapers, magazines and television networks.Investigative journalism entails getting to the bottom of stories about politics, crime and variousscandals. Necessary traits include the ability to discern fact from fiction and being a resourcefulresearcher. This is a no fluff type of job.

Foreign correspondents are employed by a media source in one country and stationed in a foreignland. They often cover government, religion, situations of political unrest, and are frequently placedin potentially dangerous environments. Although this line of journalism can be well-paying andquite high profile, in addition to the danger, foreign correspondents must travel extensively andoften for extended periods of time.

Broadcast journalists include television and radio reporters and news anchors. Such journalistsspecialize in straight reporting, with an emphasis on concise--rather than in-depth--coverage. In


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addition to needing sharp reporting and research skills, broadcast journalists must also havepleasing voices and a certain level of physical attractiveness. A less often considered area ofbroadcast journalism are writers of documentaries for both film or television. Documentaries give ajournalist the opportunity to delve deeper into stories of interest.

Photojournalists use both film and still images to capture news events. Photojournalists are widelyemployed by all sources of media, including newspapers, magazines and television. An artistic eyeas well as the ability to choose just the right moments to record for history are necessary.Photojournalists must be in the moment and are in place at events ranging from celebrity-richawards shows to natural disasters.

Youve got to have the right stuff. No matter which branch of journalism interests you, there are anumber of necessary traits that are common to all. Journalists must be inquisitive and have a nosefor news. Good journalists must employ high ethics at all times. They must verify facts, betrustworthy with sensitive information and occasionally, must be willing to protect the source oftheir information if revealing it would put someone at risk. Additionally, they must be able to relate

well to a wide variety of people and to adapt to constantly changing circumstances. Lastly, anunbiased attitude is required for almost all areas of journalism; these jobs require a neutral reportingof facts rather than opinions. The one exception to this rule is for columnists, who are employedspecifically to offer personal commentary.

Get your foot in the door. Actively seek internships during your last two years of college. Manynewspapers, magazines, television and radio stations offer internships (often unpaid) to bothundergraduate and graduate students. Check out the websites of media companies in your town;many will advertise their internships online.

Networking works. One of the best ways to secure a job in journalism is to let friends and familymembers know that you are looking. Spread the word to members of any clubs or associations thatyou belong to, as well as to trusted co-workers. Look for opportunities to meet people in the field.Sign up for writing workshops and journalism classes.

Think big, but start small. It is highly unlikely that your first job as a journalist will be high-paying or high profile (unless you are one terrific net-worker!), but getting a job at a communitynewspaper or local television station is a good start. Once you are working in the field, youll havethe chance to prove yourself and actively seek advancement.

From: http://www.howtodothings.com/careers/a2730-how-to-become-a-journalist.html


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14. The Long ChildhoodJ. Bronowski

Knowledge is not a lose-leaf notebook of facts. Above all, it is a responsibility for the integrity ofwhat we are, primarily of what we are as ethical creatures. You cannot possibly maintain that

informed integrity if you let other people run the world for you while you yourself continue to liveout of a ragbag of morals that come from past beliefs. That is really crucial today. You can see it is

pointless to advise people to learn differential equations, or to do a course in electronics or incomputer programming. And yet, fifty years from now, if an understanding of mans origins, hisevolution, his history, his progress is not the commonplace of the schoolbooks, we shall not exist.The commonplace of the school books of tomorrow is the adventure of today, and that is what weare engaged in.

And I am infinitely saddened to find myself suddenly surrounded in the west by a sense of terribleloss of nerve, a retreat from knowledge into into what? Into Zen Buddhism; into falsely profoundquestions about, Are we not really just animals at bottom; into extra-sensory perception and

mystery. They do not lie along the line of what we are now able to know if we devote ourselves toit; an understanding of man himself. We are natures unique experiment to make the rationalintelligence prove itself sounder than the reflex. Knowledge is our destiny. Self-knowledge, at last

bringing together the experience of the arts and the explanations of science, waits ahead of us.

It sounds very pessimistic to talk about western civilization with a sense of retreat. I have been sooptimistic about the ascent of man; am I going to give up at this moment? Of course not. The ascentof man will go on. But do not assume it will go on carried by western civilisation as we know it.We are being weighed in the balance at this moment. If we give up, the next step will be taken

but not by us. We have not been given any guarantee that Assyria and Egypt and Rome were notgiven. We are waiting to be somebodys past too, and not necessarily that of our future.

We are a scientific civilisation: that means, a civilisation in which knowledge and its integrity arecrucial. Science is only a Latin word for knowledge. If we do not take the next step in the ascent ofman, it will be taken by people elsewhere, in Africa, in China. Should I feel that to be sad? No, notin itself. Humanity has a right to change its colour. And yet, wedded as I am to the civilisation thatnurtured me, I should feel it to be infinitely sad. I, whom England made, whom it taught itslanguage and its tolerance and its excitement in intellectual pursuits, I should feel it a grave sense ofloss (as you would) if a hundred years from now Shakespeare and Newton are historical fossils inthe ascent of man, in the way that Homer and Euclid are.

I began this series in the valley of the Omo in East Africa, and I have come back there becausesomething that happened then has remained in my mind every since. On the morning of the daythat we were to take the first sentences of the first programme, a light plane took off from ourairstrip with the cameraman and the sound recordist on board, and it crashed within seconds oftaking off. By some miracle the pilot and the two men crawled out unhurt.

But naturally the ominous event made a deep impression on me. Here was I preparing to unfold thepageant of the past, and the present quietly put its hand through the printed page of history and said,It is here. It is now. History is not events, but people. And it is not just people remembering, it is

people acting and living their past in the present. History is the pilots instant act of decision, whichcrystallises all the knowledge, all the science, all that has been learned since man began.


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We sat about in the camp for two days waiting for another plane. And I said to the cameraman,kindly, though perhaps not tactfully, that he might prefer to have someone else take the shots thathad to be filmed from the air. He said, Ive thought of that. Im going to be afraid when I go uptomorrow, but Im going to do the filming. Its what I have to do.

We are all afraid for our confidence, for the future, for the world. That is the nature of the humanimagination. Yet every man, every civilisation, has gone forward because of its engagement withwhat it has set itself to do. The personal commitment of a man to his skill, the intellectualcommitment and the emotional commitment working together as one, has made the Ascent of Man.

From: J. Bronowski, The Ascent of Man, British Broadcasting Corporation, 1973.

Lettura e traduzione 2007-2008

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