La formazione del pensiero linguistico di Charles Darwin · the pig-tailed baboon, shoved out its...

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Il pensiero linguistico di Charles Darwin nel suo contesto storico- teorico Stefano Gensini Università di Roma «La Sapienza»

Transcript of La formazione del pensiero linguistico di Charles Darwin · the pig-tailed baboon, shoved out its...

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Il pensiero linguistico di Charles Darwin nel suo contesto storico-

teorico

Stefano Gensini

Università di Roma «La Sapienza»

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Linguaggio e selezione naturale

• Oggi gli studi si soffermano, più che sulle specifiche idee di C.D. sul linguaggio, sulla applicabilità del suo teorema essenziale:

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Gli interventi di Darwin sul linguaggio

• 1. Nei Notebooks degli anni 1837-40;

• 2. Cenni nell’ultima sezione di Origin of Species (1859);

• 3. Nei capp. I 3 e III 19 di Descent of Man (1871);

• 4. Nelle conclusioni di Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)

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Importanza dei Notebooks

• Vediamo qui affiorare tutte le principali idee di Darwin sul problema del linguaggio:

• Il continuismo: anche gli animali non umani comunicano;

• Le espressioni (animali) portano significato;

• Le lingue umane devono essersi originate naturalmente;

• Il linguaggio potrebbe esser disceso dalla musica

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Continuità della facoltà comunicativa

• «The distinction as often said of language in man is very great from all animals — but do not overrate — animals communicate to each other.— Lonsdale's story of Snails [lumache], Fox of cows, & many of insects — they likewise must understand each others expressions, sounds, & signal movements.— some say dogs understand expression of man's face.— That How far they communicate not easy to know, — but this capability of understanding language is considerable, thus carthorse [cavalli da tiro] & dog.— birds many cries, monkeys communicate much to each other. —» (M: 96-7).

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Semanticità delle espressioni

• Mr Miller (superintendent of the Zoological Gardens) remarked that exp the expression & noises of monkeys go in groups, thus the pig-tailed baboon, shoved out its lip, looking absurdly sulky [imbronciato] as often as keeper spoke to it,— but he thinks not sulkiness — this expression he believes is common to that group.— this is very important as showing connection that expression mean something. (M: 137)—

• The whole argument of expression more than any other point of structure takes its value, from its connexion with mind, (to show hiatus in mind not saltus between man & Brutes) no one can doubt this connexion.— look at faces of people in different trades &c &c &c (M: 151)

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L’origine naturale del linguaggio

• Understanding language seem simplits case of Association. — Elephant often given food & word open your mouth said, recognizes that sound as perfectly as a man. — Probably, language commenced in some necessary connexion between things & voice, as roaring for lion &c &c. (in same way alphabet, arose from letters, symbol of word beginning with the sound of letter) — crying yawning laughing being necessary sounds . . . not produced by will by but by corporeal structure. — (N 19)

• Octob. 19th. Did our language commence with singing — is this origin of our pleasure in music — do monkeys howl [ululano] in harmony — frogs chirp in [gracidano] do — union of birds voice & taste for singing with Mammalian structure. — American monkeys utter pleasant plaintive cry — The taste of recurring sounds in Harmony common to whole kingdom of nature. (N 18)

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La linguistica ai tempi di Darwin

Svolta ‘comparatista’ in Europa

• 1. Potenza teorica del nuovo paradigma indoeuropeista (F. Schlegel 1808, Bopp 1816)

• 2. Dibattito linguistico-antropologico su ‘razze’, popoli e lingue

• 3. Ripresa e crisi del dibattito sulle origini del linguaggio

Ritardo della filologia britannica

• 1. Resiste la filologia ‘etimologica’ di Horne Tooke (Epea pteroenta 1786-1805)

• 2. Solo nel 1842 nasce la Philological Society of London (v. Wedgwood)

• 3. Influenza filosofico-linguistica della scuola scozzese: Hume, Reid, Stewart:

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Scarsezza dei riferimenti di C.D.

• Benjamin H. Smart, Outlines of Sematology (1831, 1839): «ha le mie idee sul linguaggio»

• Indispensabilità del linguaggio alla formazione del pensiero

• Rifiuto della soluzione convenzionalista

• Lord Monboddo come fonte (tramite Smart) delle idee sulla formazione progressiva del linguaggio

• Frederick W. Herschel, A preliminary discourse on the study of natural philosophy (1831)

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Herschel: natural philosophy

• We must go to nature itself, and be guided by the same kind of rule as the chemist in his analysis, who accounts every ingredient an element till it can be decompounded and resolved into others. So, in natural philosophy, we must account every phenomenon an elementary or simple one till we can analyse it, and show that it is the result of others, which in their turn become elementary.

• Thus, in a modified and relative sense, we may still continue to speak of causes, not intending thereby those ultimate principles of action on whose exertion the whole frame of nature depends, but of those proximate links which connect phenomena with others of a simpler, higher, and more general or elementary kind. (1831: 92)

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Approfondiamo: (1) le grandi domande del tempo di Darwin

• Monogenesi o poligenesi della specie umana?

• James C. Prichard (Researches as to the Physical History of Man 1813, 1846-73) vs. John Crawfurd (On the Physical and Mental Characteristics of European and Asian Races of Man, 1866)

• Tendenziale razzismo implicito nelle teorie poligenetiche, portare alle loro estreme conseguenze, negli Usa, dallo scienziato svizzero Louis Agassiz

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(2) L’uomo discende dalla scimmia?

• Quale rapporto dell’individuo umano con le “lower species”?

• Dal precorritore Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844) di Robert Chambers a Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature (1863) di Thomas Huxley, il “bulldog” di Darwin

• Lo scandalo della società vittoriana

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Analogie strutturali con gli scimpanzé

Da Huxley, 1863: il libro illustra ampiamente le analogie sia nella struttura del corpo sia nell’anatomia del cervello

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(3) Quanto è antico il mondo? E l’human being?

• Antichità della terra e della specie umana: un interrogativo già postosi nel Seicento (preadamiti)

• Fondamentale apporto della geologia -> Charles Llyell, Principles of Geology (1830, 1866-68 10° ed.; Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, 1863),

• Rottura della cronologia biblica tradizionale (6-7000 anni)-> centinaia, milioni di anni?

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Riflessi sulla tematica del linguaggio

• Può il linguaggio umano essere stato uno sviluppo delle espressioni degli animali?

• Esso fu dunque il prodotto di un lento processo naturale o nacque «in un solo colpo», grazie a qualche dote speciale fornita agli uomini da Dio?

• Il linguaggio fu alle origini uno solo o vi furono tante lingue diverse, che annunciano fin dall’inizio le differenze e le gerarchie di oggi?

• Le lingue dei popoli selvaggi non testimoniano a favore di tali insopprimibili differenze?

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Due risposte autorevoli:

• Ernest Renan (1848)

• Il linguaggio nasce«sur le terrain de la conscience créatrice», uscendo, famiglia per famiglia, «du génie de chaque race, sans effort comme sans tâtonnement».

• La tesi progressiva, di origine epicurea «est la plus fausse, ou, pour mieux dire, la moins riche de vérité»

• Jakob Grimm (1851)

• «Die spräche erscheint also eine fortschreitende arbeit, ein werk, eine zugleich rasche und langsame errungenschaft [conquista] der menschen, die sie der freien entfaltung ihres denkens verdanken, wodurch sie zugleich getrennt und geeint werden.

• [W]eil aber die spräche anfangs unvollkommen war und ihr werth erst steigt, kann sie nicht von gott, der vollendetes prägt, ausgegangen sein»

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Anche in Grimm tuttavia….

Discontinuismo

• Quelli degli animali sono puri gridi, prolungamenti dell’attività biologica, espressioni di istinto senza nesso con l’attività cosciente.

Pregiudiziale del «logos»

• Il linguaggio umano risulta dallo «strettissimo nesso» fra pensiero e parola, e questo nesso ha carattere originario e irriducibile.

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Un antico refrain…. (1851: 30)

Die Thiere …..

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Nel cuore di questo dibattito…

1859: Esce Origin of Species

• La natura è governata dalla legge della selezione ai fini della sopravvivenza

• Le specie non sono fisse (Cuvier) ma mutano, su tempi lentissimi

• La genealogia delle lingue come analogon della genealogia dei popoli

Si può applicare all’uomo?

• ???????????????

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Una frase densa di conseguenze

“In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history” (1859: 488).

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Prima che Darwin prenda posizione, il dibattito è già apertissimo

Contro

• Müller (1861): il linguaggio è il Rubicone della specie umana

• Lyell (1863): funzioni superiori della coscienza e linguaggio sono un «profound mystery»

• Wallace (1869): il linguaggio sfugge alle leggi della selezione naturale

A favore

• Schleicher (1863): la dottrina della selezione è applicabile alle lingue

• Hensleigh Wedgwood, Origin of language (1866) rev. William Farrar, Chapters on language (1865): il linguaggio originato da radici onomatopeiche

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La risposta di Max Müller (1861)

• «[T]he one great barrier between the brute and man is Language. Man speaks, and no brute has ever uttered a word. Language is our Rubicon, and no brute will dare to cross it. This is our matter of fact answer to those who speak of development, who think they discover the rudiments at least of all human faculties in apes, and who would fain keep open the possibility that man is only a more favoured beast, the triumphant conqueror in the primeval struggle for life. Language is something more palpable than a fold of the brain, or an angle of the skull. It admits of no cavilling, and no process of natural selection will ever distill significant words out of the notes of birds or the cries of beasts»

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A. R. Wallace (1869): le lingue sfuggono alla selezione naturale

• The same line of argument may be used in connexion with the structural and mental organs of human speech, since that faculty can hardly have been physically useful to the lowest class of savages; and if not, the delicate arrangements of nerves and muscles for its production could not have been developed and co-ordinated by natural selection. This view is supported by the fact that, among the lowest savages with the least copious vocabularies, the capacity of uttering a variety of distinct articulate sounds, and of applying to them an almost infinite amount of modulation and inflection, is not in any way inferior to that of the higher races. An instrument has been developed in advance of the needs of its possessor.

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Un grande interlocutore poco studiato: Edward Tylor (1832-1917)

• Researches into the Early History of Mankind, (1865)

• The science of language (1866)

• Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom (1871) -> -> -> ->

• Rottura del nesso lingua – razza

• Carattere multimodale del linguaggio, specie nelle popolazioni primitive

• Unicità del linguaggio umano, varietà delle lingue/culture

• Prospettiva non eurocentrica

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Quando Darwin nel 1871 pone il problema del linguaggio…

• La sua è insieme una risposta e un tentativo di soluzione a un dibattito già in corso, sulle premesse del libro del 1859.

• Tiene conto di fonti linguistiche utili al suo argomento ma anche delle obiezioni cruciali che sono già state formulate – per così dire – in anticipo sulle sue stesse tesi.

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I tratti essenziali del linguaggio secondo C. Darwin

Non è un istinto, non è un’arte

• Non è un istinto, perché dev’essere appreso

• Ma non è un’arte (come lo è invece la scrittura) perché mette a frutto capacità ereditate dalla specie: prova ne sono – alla base – le espressioni delle emozioni fondamentali, fissate come ‘ragioni dimenticate’ dentro di noi

Non è esclusivo dell’uomo

• Moltre altre specie animali comunicano in modo sofisticato (Farrington, Rengger: gridi d’allarme d. scimmie)

• Certi uccelli possiedono anche l’articolazione

• I linguaggi animali «significano», anche i pappagalli!

• La differenza è dunque solo quantitativa, seppure immensa

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Come ebbe origine?

• Necessaria opzione per la tesi dell’imitazione dei suoni naturali, in sincronia con le voci animali;

• Nesso inscindibile voce-gesto, come unico modo per supplire all’infantia linguae

• Probabile rapporto fra uso primordiale della voce e canto, in dipendenza dalla selezione sessuale

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Linguaggio <-> cervello

“As the voice was used more and more, the vocal organs would have been strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited effects of use; and this would have reacted on the power of speech. But the relation between the continued use of language and the development of the brain, has no doubt been far more important. The mental powers in some early progenitor of man must have been more highly developed than in any existing ape, before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use; but we may confidently believe that the continued use and advancement of this power would have reacted on the mind itself, by enabling and encouraging it to carry on long trains of thought (1874: 87)

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La controprova: una sordocieca

• A complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid of words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the use of figures or algebra. It appears, also, that even an ordinary train of thought almost requires, or is greatly facilitated by some form of language, for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was observed to use her fingers whilst dreaming (ibid.)

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Ancora su cervello e linguaggio

“A great stride in the development of the intellect will have followed, as soon as the half-art and half-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use of language will have reacted on the brain and produced an inherited effect; and this again will have reacted on the improvement of language. As Mr. Chauncey Wright has well remarked, the largeness of the brain in man relatively to his body, compared with the lower animals, may be attributed in chief part to the early use of some simple form of language,—that wonderful engine which affixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites trains of thought which would never arise from the mere impression of the senses, or if they did arise could not be followed out”. (1874: 610)

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Non esistono lingue superiori o inferiori

• “So with languages; the most symmetrical and complex ought not to be ranked above irregular, abbreviated, and bastardised languages, which have borrowed expressive words and useful forms of construction from various conquering, conquered, or immigrant races.

• From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude that the extremely complex and regular construction of many barbarous languages, is no proof that they owe their origin to a special act of creation. Nor, as we have seen, does the faculty of articulate speech in itself offer any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed from some lower form”.

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Un tema antico, anzi nuovissimo

• La musica nasce dal linguaggio?

• Herbert Spencer: The Origin and Function of Music (1857)

• O il linguaggio nasce dalla musica?

• Darwin (1871) e altri autori recenti: Mithen, Fitch ecc.

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Spencer: Prima fu la parola

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Darwin: primi furono la passione ed il ritmo

• All these facts with respect to music and impassioned speech become intelligible to a certain extent, if we may assume that musical tones and rhythm were used by our half-human ancestors, during the season of courtship, when animals of all kinds are excited not only by love, but by the strong passions of jealousy, rivalry, and triumph. (…)

• As we have every reason to suppose that articulate speech is one of the latest, as it certainly is the highest, of the arts acquired by man, and as the instinctive power of producing musical notes and rhythms is developed low down in the animal series, it would be altogether opposed to the principle of evolution, if we were to admit that man's musical capacity has been developed from the tones used in impassioned speech. We must suppose that the rhythms and cadences of oratory are derived from previously developed musical powers. We can thus understand how it is that music, dancing, song, and poetry are such very ancient arts. We may go even further than this, and, as remarked in a former chapter, believe that musical sounds afforded one of the bases for the development of language. (1874: 572)

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Darwin: sintesi delle fonti?

• 1. In parte sì: utilizza ampi materiali: naturalistici, antropologici, linguistici, che sono talvolta ancora da studiare, nella loro enorme varietà;

• 2. In parte no: la sua potente teoria trasforma in modo radicale questi materiali, dando loro una struttura che riesce a porsi come attuale rispetto a interrogativi nostri.

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Quale futuro per il darwinismo linguistico?

Studi sul linguaggio animale

• Un esecutore testamentario: George Romanes (1882)

• Un’esperienza controproducente: R.L. Garner The speech of monkeys (1892)

• La resa dei conti riduzionista: Conway Lloyd Morgan (1904)

Le origini del linguaggio

• Blocco della discussione linguistica dopo il 1866 (art. 2 dello Statuto della Société ling. de Paris)

• Il tema si eclissa nella tradizione saussuriana e strutturalista

• Ripresa negli anni 70 del ‘900 in area biocognitiva

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«To be read some day…»

Origin of man now proved.—Metaphysic must flourish.—He who understands baboon would do more towards metaphysics than Locke. —Charles Darwin, 1838: Notebook M