Western Civ Notes:

The Ancient Mediterranean Foundation of the Medieval Westo The Human Animal

Homo sapiens sapiens Earliest: 2 million years ago Anatomical “moderns”: 200,000 years Behavioral “moderns”: 50,000 years Narrow genetic diversity due to near extinction: 175,000 years ago No meaningful race of humans Use tools/language/cooking Social animals create culture

o Memes versus genes Settled Agriculture: 8,000 BCE

o Begins recorded history Ancient River System Civilizations

o Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Yellow Ancient Empires

o Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and Chinese Mediterranean

o Greece -> Roman Republic -> Roman Empireo Two Ancient Worlds

The Roman World: Populus Romanus Commerce/Trade – Conquest/Slavery Civic government/Law State Religion

The Northern World: Barbarians (Germanic People) Forests Raiding Nomadism Clan based governance/customs

Later Roman Empire Civil religion vs mystery religion

o Pantheon vs monotheismo Rites/heroes/conquest of death/moral life/salvation, martyrs

Emperor Constantine (280-306-337)o Christianity as official religion

Fall of Rome (410-476)o Germanic Tribes:

Vandals, Goths, Huns, Saxons, Visogoths, Frankso Rome Sacked (410)o Last Emperor deposed (476)

Successor Stateso Eastern Roman Empire (476-1453)

Multiethnic/Polygot Constantinople (Istanbul, 1453) (280-306-337) Byzantine Empire

o Islamic World (632 – Muhammad (570-632) Islam

Ethics/behavior conversion Qu’ran Cultural unity/5 pillars of Islam Political fragmentation

o Western Christendom: New Barbarians 800-936-1806 Synthetic Society

Northern Law: Tribal Law, Trial by Battle, Trail by Ordeal

o Politics: Warlordismo Economics: Barter, Raid, Tribute

Southern Religion: Christianity, Monasticismo Language: Latino Government: Roman Empire

Unified under God Christianity and the Church

o Gregory the Great (590-604) First monk to rise to the papacy

o Ruled by the abbots under the Rule of St. Benedict 480-547 Discipline and the dignity of labor

o Latin Binds Germanic tribes Order in the chaos

o The Franks Clovis (466-481-511)

Overthrows syagrius (486) Converts to Christianity (496) Opposed Arian Christianity “heresy”

o Carolingians Frank rulers (751-987) Descendants of Charles Martel (688-714-741) Battle of Tours/Poitiers (732) Pepin the Short (714-741-814)

Donation of Pepin (756) o Reconfirmed (774)

Charlemagne (742-768/771-814) Charles the Great

Louis I (778-814-840)

Charles, Lothair, Louis Conquest of Charlemagne (814)

30 years Lombards, Saxons, Avars Church controls 1/3 to 1/2 of all land in

Christendom Charles the Bald, Lothair, Louis the German (841)

o Feudalism First fiefs given out by Charles Martel in 730 By 800 Charlemagne has 300 top order vassals Oath of Fealty Oath of Homage Oath of Vassalage

o Barbarian Invasion (9th Century) Vikings (Norsemen) Saracens (Muslims) Magyars (Huns)

o Feudal Revolution Feudal localism

o Fiefs/Benefices Land exchanged through ceremony to promote loyalty

o Castellans/Encastlements Medieval castle

o Devolution of Power Two Churches

o Secular Clergy Baptism Confirmation Eurcharist Confession Marriage/Ordination Extreme unction

o Regular Clergy Monks

The “Feudalized” Churcho 3 Orders

Oratores: Speak to God (Priest/Monk) Bellatores: Warriors who protect church Laboratores: Workers/Farmers (95%)

Monastic Reform: Cluny (Benedictine)o Cluny: Benedictine reform monastery

Founded (909) Morality: Resist temptations Rule of Benedict

Abolish Simony: Buying/Selling church offices The Rise of the Saxons: Holy Roman Empire

o Otto I “The Great” (912-936-973) Battle of Lechfeld (955) Holy Roman Emperor (962)

o Pope John XII (955-963) Reconfirms donation of Pepin

o Pope Leo VIII (963-964) Imperial appointee Rebuilds power on lay investiture

The Church and the Holy Roman Empire: Co-operationo Pope Benedict IX (1032-1043)

3 time Popeo Holy Roman Emperor Henry III (1017-1039-1056)

Agnes of Poitou/Cluny Truce of God/Peace of God

o Pope Leo IX (1049-1054) Monastic reform becomes papal reform

Synodso Rome, Pavia, Cologne, Reims, Mainz

Pattern for co-operation William I (1070-1087) Philip I (1199-1216) Louis IX (1243-1254)

Crown and Church: Contest for Leadership The HRE and Church: Patterns of Church/State Conflict

o HRE Henry IV (1050-1056-1106)o Pope Gregory VIII (1073-1085)

The Church: Death of Empires Investiture Controversy

o Pope Gregory VIII Hildebrand/Cluny

o Henry IV Civil war in German tribes Installs antipope Clement III (1084)

Gregory VII flees (1085) Pattern for Church/State conflict

o King Henry I vs Archbishop Anselm Compromise of Bec (1107)

o Henry V vs Pope Callistus II Concordat of Worms (1122)

o King Phillips IV vs Boniface VIII Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378)

o Check on royal power/challenge divine right

o Fragmentation of Germany & Italy Centralized imperial powers

Agricultural and Population Growtho European population

10th C: ca. 35 million 14th C: ca. 70 million

o Productivity Communal effort

Serfdom (Serf vs Lord) Manors: 1000-2000 acres

Technology changeo Three Field Systemo Draught animals

Oxen increasingly replaced by horses Horse technology: Collar and Stirrup

Mould-board plowo Reclamation of land

Cities and the Cash: Market Economyo Latin roots of the cityo Civitas (Citizenship)o Urbis (Walled town or city)

Castellanus (fort/castle) Primogeniture/Patrilineal family: Eldest son

o Commercial revolution Merchants

Traderso Italian citieso Jewso The Three Orders

o Urban society Charter

Security of property No serf labor Live for 366 days in city secures freedom

Communes Guilds

Masters Apprentices Journeyman

Burgers/Bourgeoisie City dwellers

o Medieval monastic educationo Education: Cathedral schools

900 CE: ca. 20

1000 CE: ca. 200o Scholastics (Schoolmen)

Logic (Dialects) Aristotle’s Logic (St.) Anselm (1034-1109)

Proslogrum (1078) First scholastic Move towards logic

Peter Abelard (1079-1153) Application of reason Condemnation at Council of Sens (1140)

o Opposed by abbot and monk Bernard or Clairvaux

o Universities Bologna (1088) Paris (1200) Oxford (1209) Cambridge (1214) Vercellio (1228) Toulouse (1240) Rome (1244)

o Scholastics Order/ Structure

Unify logic and faith Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198)

Commentatoro Averroists: Double truth

Separation of religion and state St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Unities truthso Summa Thologiae (1265-1273)

Warrior Culture and The Crusadeso The First Crusade (1096-1099)

Abbasid Dynasty (749-1258) Baghdad Golden Age of Islamic civilization

Turkish peoples/Seljuq Turks Battle of Manzikert/Fall of Jerusalem (1071) Pope Urban II (1058-1099) Council of Clermont (1095)

Called to advance the Peace of God Preach the 1st crusade Calls on minor nobility of Europe

Motives

Faith, Feudal Obedience, Plunder, Land, Trade Fall of Jerusalem

1st (1071) 2nd (1099)

o 70,000 massacredo Subsequent Crusades

The Second Crusade (1147-1149) Battle of Hattin (1187/Saladin)

The Third Crusade (1182-1192) French, German and English Kings

o Phillip II, Frederick I, Richard Io Irony and Traged: The Later Crusades

The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) The Children’s Crusade (1212) The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)

o Chivalric Culture Chevalier (Knight/Horesman) Military prowess

Valor, loyalty, charity, honor (in battle)o Consequences

Papacy Enhanced powers Prevented consolidation of imperial system

Islamic contact Trading Eastern trading luxury

o Porcelain, silks, rugs, metal work, spices Outside World contact

Aggressive Violent Cultural insistent

o Own religion/truths Crucial patterns for later Europe

o Imperialismo Colonialism

Feudal Monarchy Norman Invasion

o Anglo-Saxons (5th Century) Edward (1004-1042-1066) “The Confessor” Harold II (1022-1066)

o William the Conqueror (1028-1066-1087) Shires Feudal monarchy

Fewer, strong vassals

Large territorial core Central royal control over taxation/law Independent leadership in religious reform

English Monarchyo William II (1087-1100) “Rufus”o Henry I (1100-1135)

Circuit judges The Common Law:

Trial by jury, due process, royal writs The Angevin Empire

o Henry II (1133-154-1189) Anjou Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) King of England, Duke of Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine Vassal of the King of England Relies heavily on urban taxation and conversion of

feudal dues Rising cash ecnomy Two sons:

Richard I (1189-1199) John (1199-1216)

French Monarchyo Hugh Capet (940-996)

Successor to the Carolingians Co-Kings

o Philip II “Agustus” (1180-1223) English model “Feudal monarchy” Royal governance

Royal council Baillis

Alliance with Papacy Submits to Pope Innocent III (1200)

The HRE: Weakness to Collapseo Frederick I “Barbarossa” (1152-1190)

Burgandy/Riechsfursto Pope Alexander III (1159-1181)

Lombard League (1167) Battle of Legnano (1176)

o Frederick I dies (1190) 3rd Crusade Grandson Frederick ward of Papacy (1198)

Battle for Power: Philip, John, Innocento Philip II (1180-1223)o John (1166-1199-1216)

Lockard/Softsword

Excommunicated (1209) Kidnaps/Marries Isabelle d’Angouleme (1200)

Unpopular Declared “felon” by Philip (1205)

Dispute over archbishop of Canterbury Scutage

o Innocent III (1198-1216) Battle of Bouvines (1214) and the Power of the Medieval Church

o Philip II – Franceo Pope Innocent IIIo Frederick II – HRE

Declared HRE by Innocent (1211)o John (1166-199-1216) – England

Dispute over Archbishopric of Cantebury Innocent excommunicates (1209)

o Otto IV “of Brunswick”o Battle of Bouvines (1214)

Otto defeated John retreats Angevin Empire dismantles

The Church Ascendanto Pope Innocent IIIo Curia – Papal monarchyo Fourth Lateran Church (1215)

No new church orders Mass and Confession once per year Clerical morality

o Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) The French Monarchy: Royal Power Ascendant

o Louis IX “St. Louis” (1226-1270) Seventh Crusade – Capture by Mamaluks Parton of arts and learning – Sainte Chapelle France as “eldest daughter of church” Massive religious spenind French coinage: Protection of the crown University of Paris (1257)

o French golden century Medieval Representative Institutions

o Common heritage of Feudal societyo Feudal co-operation extended

Nobles/consulation City charters/liberties

o England: Curia regis/Parliamento France: Curia regis/ Estates General

o HRE: Imperial dieto Aragon/Catalonia: Corteso Civic assemblies: Councils

The English Monarchy: Roayal Power Limitedo John (1166-1199-1216)

The Magna Carta (1215)o Henry III

Great Council/Parliament Provisions of Oxford (1258) Simon de Montfort/Parliament of 1265

o Edward I (1239-1272-1307)o Model Parliament

The French Monarchy: Royal Ascendant II o Philip IV (1268-1285-1314)

War and Cash: Jews, Knights Templar (1306-1307)o Edward I (King of England)

War (1294)o Boniface VIII (1294-1303)o Clement V (1305-1314)

Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378) Great Papal Schism (1378-1418)

o Council of Constance (1414-1418) Emerging Critics of the Church

o Conciliarism (Rule by Church Council)o Marsilius of Pacluo John Wycliffe (1328-1384)

Lollardso Jon Huss (1372-1415)

Plague and People: 14th Century Crisis o Malthusian Crisis

Death rate rises as population growth outstrips food production

o Conquest, War, Famine & Pestilence and Death Sings of Last Times (Apocalypse)

o Hundred Years War (1337-1453)o Famines

1272 1277 1283 1292 1311 1332 1345

o Great Famine (1315-1322)o Little Ice Age (1310-1350(1360))o The Black Death (1347-1353+)

Bubonic Plague Psychological Results of the 14th Century Crisis

o Cultural morbidityo Scapegoating

Jews Doctors Witches Anticlericalism

Economic/Social Results of 14th Century Crisiso Faith: Piety and Prayer

Flagellants Devotio Moderna – Thomas a Kempis (1418)

o Riots: Eat, Drink and be Merry English Peasant Rebellion (1381) Jacquerie (1358) Ciompi Revolt (1378)

o Labor: Golden Age of the Working Man Low prices/rents, higher wages Rapid decline of Feudalism Labor mobility Destruction of records Youthful society

Cultural fluidity Labor saving devices

Advanced sailing Moveable type

o Revolts English Peasant Revolt (1381) Statue of Laborers (1351) Poll Tax (1377,1381)

Watt Tyler, John Ball, Richard II (1367-1400) Jaquerie: French Peasant Revolt (1358) Ciompi Revolt: Florentine Worker Rebellion (1378)

Italian Renaissance I: Political Context Background

o Itallian City-States Battle of Legnamo (1176) Peace of Constance (1183) Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378) Avignon Great Papal Schism (1378-1414)

o Communes

Padu, Florentine, Siena, Pisa, Luccao City Councils: Inner and Outer

Nobles Merchant Class Lower classes (workers) Constant struggle between Guelphs (Papal) and

Ghibbelines (Imperial) Despots (Podesta) and Capitano (Tend to) ->

Principalities Verona/Romano & Scala families Milan/Visconit (1277-1447) & Sforza families

(1447-1535) Council governments (in some cases) -> Republics

(Venice, Florence) Florence: Home of the Renaissance

o Free commune (1115)o Podesta (Luca Grimaldi, Guelph) – Party factionalism (1257)o Constitution of 1293 (Ordinances of Justice) – Expels Nobility

3 Principals of Operation Election from within the guilds (arti) of city

councils Short term public service, elected by lot (no

debtors, no recent office holders, no relatives) Division of powers: Signoria

o Council of 9: 6 major guilds, 2 minor, 1 general member

o Council of 12o Council of 16o Council of the People: 500 members, 6

month termso Balia: Ten of War

Civic Humanism: All have a place in government/allegiance for liberties

Florin Leonardo Bruni Medici Banking Family/ Cosimo de’ Medici

(1388-1464) Guelph victory: Flornentines take over papal

banking and tax collection Civic duty/public service: Civitas/polis

Council of Constance (1415-1418)o Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455)

First “Renaissance” Pope The Renaissance and the Church

o Pope Innocent VIII (1484-1492)o Pope Alexander VI “Rodrigo Borgia”

(1492-1503)o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)o Pope Leo X (1513-1521) “Medici”o Pope Clement VII (1521-1534) “Medici”

Italian Renaissance II: Themes Renaissance Themes

o History/Differenceo Rhetoric/Communicationo The Classics/Architecture

Francesco Petrarcho Cupiditaso Livy “Titus Livius”

History of Rome (9 BCE) History nourishes the present

De viris illustibus (1337+) Venetian library (1362) Poetry – ther vernacular

Humanism versus scholasticism Renaissance Views

o View of Humanismo View of Scholarship

Studia humanitas (liberal arts) – Leonardo Bruni Grammar, rhetoric, poetry History of politics, moral philosophy

o Florentine Politics (1375-1434) Milan/Giangaleazzo Visconti (1351-1402)

Duke of Milan (1395) Wars: 1390-1392, 1397-1398,1400-1402 Verona, Padua, Pisa, Siena, Assisi, Bologna

Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) Chancellor of Signore (1375-1406) Greek studies De tyranno (1400) “The Roman Republic”

Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444) Chancellor of Signore (1410-1411,1427-1444) Roman history: republic and empire History of Florentine People (1415-1442): 12

volumes published by Signore: Ancient, Middle Ages, Modern – Modeled on Livy’s History of Rome

Civic Humanism: The active lifeo Florentine Architecture and Artistry

Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) Founding Hospital of the Innocenti Santa Maria del Fiore (Duomo)

Leon Battista Albeti (1404-1472) Florence Perpective “Genius”

Renaissance Artistryo Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

“Renaissance man” Inspired

Raphael (1483-1520) Michelangelo (1475-1564)

Employed by Florence Papacy Duke of Milan King of France “Francis I”

o Pope Julius II Machiavelli and the Renaissance Monarchs

The “Early Modern” Periodo Re-emergent market economy

Local trading Long-distance trading

Hanseatic League (1356-1669)o Free Imperial Cities

Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Riga, Danzing, etc. – ca. 40 towns

o Antwerp/London/Lyon, etc International trading

Spices, Silks, Bulliono Growing middle class

Merchants Professionals

o Modern bureaucracies/states Collapse of Feudal Monarchy

o The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) Destroys noble families in France and England “War of the Roses”

Rise of “Renaissance Monarchs”o Louis XI (1423-1461-1483) – France

“Spider King”

Develops cities, fairs, roads while destroying the power of noble families

o Charles VIII (1470-1483-1498)o Louis XII (1462-1498-1515)o Henry VII (1457-1485-1506) – Tudor England

Outlaws private castles and militias, develops cities and builds the royal treasury

Court of the Star Chamber Justice of the Peace

o Ferdinand II (1452-1479-1516) and Isabella (1451-1474-1506) Late 15th century Reconquista of Spain

o Charles I “King of Spain” (1500-1516-1556)o Charles V “Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556)

Second Generation: “Renaissance Princes”o Francis I (1515-1547) – Franceo Henry VIII (1506-1547) – Englando Charles V *(1519-1558) – Spain/HREo Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

The Prince (1513) Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy (1513-1521)

Renaissance Monarchy: Attributeso Education

Leaders highly educated in Renaissance subjectso Opulence

Patronize opulent courts of scholars, musicians, artistso Centralized/Professionalized governanceo Aggression (Emerging age of gunpowder)

Establish standing mercenary armies/fortified cities Establish strong, wind-driven ocean-going navies with

naval cannon The “Italian Wars” (1494-1556)

o France (1494-1498)o France/Spain (1499-1504)o Spain (1521-1526)o Medici & Pope Julius

Defeat Florentines (using Spanish troops) and are readmitted to Florence (1512)

The Northern Humanistso Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)

Translated original New Testament (Greek text) to Latin The Renaissance: South and North

o Italian civic humanism Program for urban life/civic morality

o Northern humanism “Christian humanism” Program for church life/social morality

Birth of Northern Humanismo Gerhardt Groote (1340-1384) – The Netherlandso Brethren of the Common Life

Devotion moderna Schools: piety, literacy, “safe” classics

o Thomas a Kempis Imitation of Christ (1418)

Christian Humanism: Maturityo Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)o Thomas More (1478-1535)

Utopia (1516)o Incarnation vs Atonemento Attack on superstitiono Latin exerciseso Protest literature

The German Lands and the HREo Church doctrine: Purgatory/indulgences

Marin Luther’s Worldo Martin Luther (1483-1546)

German monk, scholar, religious reformer, church founder

Renaissance Princes & the HRE Charles V Francis I Henry VIII

Martin Luther: Lawyer, Monk, Scholaro University of Erfurt (1501) – Law

1st Crisis: Thunder Storm (July 1505) Augustinian monk

2nd Crisis: Mass (1507) Obsession with sin – atonement

o University of Wittnberg (1508) Visits Rome (1510)

Martin Luther: Contoversialisto Pope Leo X (1513-1521)o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)o St. Peter’s Basilica (1506+)o Alberech of Brandenburg/Archbishop of Mainz (1515)

Plenary indulgenceo Frederick III “The Wise” of Saxony (1463-1525)

o Leipzig Disputation (1519) Johannes Eck

Martin Luther: Heretico HRE Charles V (1519-1556)o Diet of Worms/Edict of Worms (1521)o Lutheran Church (1522)

German bible (vernacular)/”priesthood of all believers” Two sacraments: baptism and communion Participatory hymnal Rejects celibacy for the clergy…The authority question…

(Eck) The Lutheran Church and its Context

o Imperial Politics European cities, kingdoms, politics…fueled by New

World richeso Charles V – HRE (1519-1556)o Francis I – France (1515-1547)o Charles defeats Francis

Battle of Pavia (1525)o Rome sacked by renegade German mercenaries (1527)o Spain assumes role of protector of papacyo Suleiman I “The Magnificent” (1520-1566)

Conquest of Belgrade (1521) Battle of Mohaes (1526) Siege of Vienna (1529)

o Augsburg Confession (1530) 45% German Princes and cities subscribe

o Sehmakaldic League (1531) Imperial German War

o Peace of Augsburg (1555) German Princes choose religion

Lutheran Motivationso Religious conviction o Princely/political independenceo German independence/nationalismo Economic gaino Philip of Hesse (1504-1567) “Philip the Magnanimous”

Embraces Lutheranism (1524)o Swabian (German) Peasants Revolt (1524-1526)

Thomas Muntzer: All things are commono The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants (1525)

Attacks feudalism/feudal lordso The Reformation as Urban Movement

Reading and new urban elites Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

o Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) Inspired by Luther’s Leipzig debate with Eck Christian humanist focus Scriptural tests Theocratic society Supports the Swabian peasants

Anabaptistso Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) – Zurich

Adult baptism, pacifism, refusal of oaths, divine inspiration, free will

o Munster (1534-1535) John of Leiden (1509-1536)

o Menno Simons (1496-1561) / Mennonites – Dutch The Protestant Reformation: German and Swiss

o Political: Provides theological justification for political resistance to extra-religion domination

o Social: Provides theological path for the rise of wealthy, literate, urban populations to replace older feudal elites

o Lutheranism: Theology of conscience – focus (inward) on individual’s understanding of scripture

Politics of hierarchy (princely rule)o Swiss variants: “Worldly” theology – focus (outward) on militant

opposition to “wrong” teachings Politics of opposition (theocracy of the ‘elect’)

From Switzerland to France: Calvinismo John Calvin (1509-1564) – Genevao Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536-1559)

Nature of man – total depravity Nature of man’s relation to God – predestination and

the elect Nature of man’s relationship to his community

Local: the consistory (church/city council of the “elect”) / The Academy

Regional: synods (elected church governance structure)

o for the believer: 2 sacraments, collective worship with other believers in the vernacular, no priests, strong community … actively oppose evil…”prove” ones “elect” status…

Spreads from Geneva to France, England, Scotland, and the Netherlands

o French Huguenots, English and American Colonial Puritans, Scots Presbyterians, Dutch Reformed

The English Reformation :Henry VIIIo Henry VIII (1491-1509-1547)o Catherine of Aragon

Birth of Mary (1516) Henry seeks divorce (1527)

o Anne Boleyn Birth of Elizabeth (1533)

o Jane Seymour Birth of Edward (1537)

o Anne of Cleveso Catherine Howardo Catherine Parr o Act of Supremacy (1534)o Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1539)o The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536-1537)o The 6 Articles (1539)o Edward VI (1547-1553)

Duke of Somerset Puritan/Calvinist

o Mary (1553-1558) Catholic Philip II (of Spain) Smithfield Fires

The English Reformation: Elizabetho Elizabeth I (1558-1603)o The 39 Articles (1563) / Anglicans / Episcopalians

An attempted middle ground Maintains episcopacy with no supreme priestly

leadership (no pope) Establishes a national church

Outward conformity required as a political act Toleration…to a point Political not religious loyalty

o The political queen Puritans The Spanish Armada (1588)

Calvinismo Predestination

Activist religiono Psychology

Who is saved (Only God knows)o Local politics

Consistory as God’s governanceo National politics

Church is the anvil that wears out many hammerso French Huguenots

25% French Population (1550)o Support

Urban middle class and southern/central French princes Route and rationale for independence

The Counter Reformationo Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Society of Jesus “Jesuits” (1534) Spiritual Exercises

Missions/educationo Leo X (1475-1513-1523) “Giovanni de’ Medici”o Clement VII (1478-1523-1534) “Giulio de’ Medici”o Paul III (1468-1534-1549)o The Council of Trent (1534-1563)

Confirms Catholic doctrine 7 sacraments and transubstantiation Condemning predestination Reforms church practices

o Requires episcopal residencyo Establishes diocesan seminarieso Reforms issuance of indulgenceso New decrees on clerical moralityo Allows new church orders

Authorityo Scripture and tradition

Spain: Champion on the Counter-Reformationo Philip II (1527-1556-1598)

“New World” wealth Marriage to Mary (1554-1558)

o Dutch Revolt (1566) / 80 Years War (1568-1648) Spanish Inquisition William I “of Orange, ‘the Silent’” (1533-1584) Dutch Republic (1579) Spanish Armada

o Portuguese Throne (1580) Becomes Philip I

French Revolutiono Henri II (1547-1559) / Catherine de’ Medici

Chambre ardente (Leo X, Clement VII, Francis II, Charles IX)

Royal instability -> Religious civil war (1562-1598) St. Bartholomew’s Day Masacre (1572)

20,000 dead French Reformation: Civil War

o Henri of Navarre “Henri IV” (1553-1589-1610) Conversion to Catholicism (1593) Edict of Nantes (1598)

o Politiques: Princes who abandon religious purity for civil peace Niccolo Machiavelle

Changing Conflict / Changing Europeo Spain: Decline and marginalizationo The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

Ferdinand of Hapsburg – Styria Educated by Jesuits = HRE Ferdinand II (1578-

1619-1637) Bohemia/Defenestration at Prague (1618) Albrech von Wallenstein Edict of Restitution (1629)

o Gustavus II Adolphus (1594-1611-1632) – Sweden Lutheran Battle of Breitenfeld (1631 Enter war to support Lutheran churches and to

o Louis XIII (1601-1610-1643) – (Catholic) France Enters war against Spain/Hapsburg (1635)

Supports Lutheran princes to prevent Spanish domination

o Peace of Westphailia (1648) 30% of population dead France and Sweeden vs Spain and the HRE Recognizes sovereignty/independence of each state of

the HRE Fatally weakens Holy Roman Emperor

Independence of Dutch United Providences recognized Each German prince to choose religion

Reconfirms Peace of Augsburg Confirms decline of Spain in European affairs and the

rise of France on the continent, and Sweden in the Baltic

Ends era or religious wars and sets religious boundaries of Europe

War is largely conducted for political/national/secular ends

New World: Europe and Eurasia European Expansion (1500-1900)

o Raceo Cultureo Luck

The Mongol Invasion, Trade and the Luck of the Europeano Mongol “Tartar” Invasionso Chingis “Ghengis” Khan (1162-1206-1227)

Massed Cavalry 6 Archers to 4 Lancers Compound Bows/Strategic Coordination

o Ogedei Kahn (1186-1227-1241) Multi-cultural/Religiously tolerant empire/Intermarriage Silver based tax economy/Open protected trade routes Mongol post-road “Yam” system

o Pax Mongolica (1241) Invasion of Europe

o Sack of Baghdad (1258)o Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)

Mamalukes Pax Mongolica and Early European Trade

o Mongol “Tartar” Invasions Kublai Kahn (1215-1260-1294) Yuan Dynasty

o Marco Polo (1254-1324) Silk Road

o Trade Expansion in Wake of Black Deatho Mongol Empire (1259)

Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) Ethnic Mongol

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Ethnic Hun

o Italian Commercial Naval Powers Venice Genoa

Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Trade and European Reactiono Rise of the Ottoman Turks and the Turkish Threat

Fall of Constantinople (1453) European Exploration: Iberia, Crusading, Trading, and the Empire:

Portugalo Reconquista

3 Phases 900-1150 1150-1250

1478-1492o Henry “The Navigator” (1394-1460)

Gold, Slaves and Christians Kingdom of Mali Exploration

o Vasco de Gama (1460-1524), Bartholomew Diaz (1451-1524) Indian Ocean Interlopers

Trading monopolies: pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg

Early European Contacts: Portugalo India: Christians and Spiceso Indian Ocean Interlopers

Piracy -> Monopoly Strong Ports

Goa, Hormuz, Attempt to take Adeno Portuguese Trading

Spice, Cloth, Bullion Ports along African Coasts, West India Coast, East South

America New Worlds

Spain: Spanish Envyo Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): New World Crusade

Piracy and Predation Gunpowder Empires

o Francis I (1515-1547): Franceo Henry VIII (1506-1547): Englando Charles V (1519-1558): Spain/HRE

Crusadeso Conquistadors o Funded by Itallyo Kingdom of Castileo Conquest

The Caribbean, The Aztecs: Hernando Cortez (1485-1547)

The Inca: Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541)o Taino People/Hispaniola: Economic Stystem

Batolome de Las Casas (1484-1566)o Communicable Diseases

The Columbian Exchangeo Old World Diseases and New World Demographics

Smallpox, mumps, measles, influenza, cholera, malaria 30-100 to 2-8 in 150 Years

o Old World Plants and Animals and New World Ecology

Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens vs llama, duck, turkey, dogs

Transforms ranch/farming Sugar, coffee, wheat, barley

Transforms agriculture: Sugar cultivationo New World Goods and Old World Economy

Gold and Silver Potatoes, corn, tobacco, chocolate, dyestuff

Spain: Sixteenth Century Super Power The Spanish Empire

o Empire of Religious Uniformityo Bureaucratic Domination o Castilian Domination o Trade of: Tobacco, Chocolate, Cochineal/Sugar, Slaves

Rapid Growtho Populationo Industrial Productiono Internal and External Tradeo Economic Growth Fuels Social/Political/Religious Friction

The Seventeenth Century Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

o Population Stagnationo Population Redistribution to Northwest Europeo Reappearance of Plague (South and East)o Weather Change: 2nd Little Ice Age (1610-1650)o Currency Crisis (1619+)o Revolts/Revolutions: 1640’s and 1650’s

England, France, The Netherlands Catalonia, Portugal, Naples, Ireland Prussia, Poland, Russia

Competing Explanations for the “General Crisis”o Economic/Social Explanations (Christopher Hill)

Transition from feudalism to capitalism Protestant work ethic, Swiss reformed tradition

Social Revolution Friction between old feudal and capitalist elites

New Colonialism British East India/Dutch East India Companies

o Political Explanation (Hugh Trevor Roper) Transition from localism to centralized absolutism

Taxes, war, central controls Religious/Political disputes

The Spanish Case: Castile and the Spanish Empireo Philip II (1598-1621): Duque de Lerma

Inflationo Moriscos Marranos (1609-1614)o Philip IV (1621-1665)

The Scientific Revolution Context

o Heroic Science o Medieval Farming Europe Shifts to Early Modern Urban Trading

and Manufacturing Europeo Growth of Individualism and Rationalism in Urban Context

Reformation: Individualism and textual sources Growth of Capitalism: Rational calculations of cause and

effecto Conflicts Over Old World Views vs New Astronomy Parallel

Conflict Between Southern/Mediterranean Counter-Reformation Areas and Northern/Atlantic Reformation Areas

The Old World Systemo Aristotle’s Physics (160 CE)

Four Elements: Fire, Air, Water, Earth Four Humors: Blood, Phlegm, Choler, Melancholy

o Ptolemy’s Almagest (160 CE) Geocentric Hierarchy The Great Chain of Beign

o Renaissance Science Ad Fontes: Return to the Source Galen (130-200 CE) Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

Structure of the Human Body (1543)o The Science of the Stars

Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 CE) Uniform circular motion

Nicolous Copernicus (1473-1543) Pythagoreans

Tyco Brahe (1546-1601) Isle of Ven (1576-1597)

o Uraniborg Observations Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Copernican Laws of Planetary Motion

Galileo Galilei (1565-1642) “How, not why…” Laws of Inertia (1604) Telescope 20x (1610)

o Thinking Science/Doing Science

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Empiricism/Test of Experience/Induction Idols of the Mind

o Of the Tribe Universal: Accept coincidence

as proof; see order and causation in coincidence)

o Of the Cave Language Based:

Confusing/Inadequate vocabulary

o Of the Theatre Mistaken Philosophy:

Political/Religious ideologies, sensory skepticism

Dignity and Growth of Science: Fields of Knowledge Sketched (1623)

o Fancy/Poesyo Memory/Historyo Reason/Philosophy (Natural)

New Atlantis (1626)o Science as a collaborative

undertaking/methodical and impersonal/provides material benefits

“Knowledge is Power”o Idolso Gunpowdero Philosophy/Reason vs Faith/Revolution

Rene Descartes (1596-1650): Deductiono Radical Skepticism: “I think therefor I

am”o Discourses on Method/Materialism

(1653) Question all truths: Divide

complex problems into simple ones

Conduct thoughts in logical order

Make certain surveys leave nothing out

Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (1660)

London Charles II

o Inspired by New Atlantis Motto: “Nobody’s word is final” Empire of Learning/Republic of Letters

Academic des Science/Academy of Sciences (1666) Paris Louis XIV

o The Wars of Religion: The Aftermath Henri IV (1589-1610): Le bon Roi Henri

Road/Canal Building Silk Culture/Colonial Growth Debt Renegotiations and Bribes to Catholic

Princeso Secure Peace

Maximilen de Bethone (1560-1641) Due de Sully

o Building Absolutism Marie de Medici

Married to Henri IV in 1600 Louis XIII (1602-1610-1643) Cardinal Richelieu

Foreign Policyo Oppose Spain and Austrian Hapsburgso Allies with Protestant Princes in Thirty

Years War o Encourages Revolts in Catalonia and

Portugal Domestic Policy

o Builds Royal Power thus Assaults Huguenots

o Siege of La Rochelle (1627-1628) Introduces Intendants

o Justiceo Financeo Police

Assaults Privileges of Nobles Raises Taxes on Peasants to Increase Military

o Absolutism Assailed Anne of Austria Louis XIV (1638-1643-1715) Cardinal Mazarin (1643-1648) The Fronde

Of the Parliament (1648-1649) Of the Princes (1650-1653)

o Absolutism Triumphant

Versailles Established (1661) Seat of Government (1682)

John Baptist Colbert (1661-1683) Mercantilism Colonialism

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)o The Challenge of Absolutism

Richelieu: “Reason of State” Warfare and Problems of Finance

Duque de Olivares Spanish Collapse

o The Dutch “Golden Age” United Provinces: Dutch Merchant Republic (1579)

Confirmed (1648) Dutch East India Co. (1602)

Spices West East India Co. (1621)

Sugar Slaves

Bank of Amsterdam (1609) Resist Spanish Absolutism (to 1648)

French Absolutism after Europe’s Richest Prize

o Absolutism?: The English Case Elizabeth I (1559-1603): Tudor James I (1603-1625): Stuart

Puritans Hampton Court Conference (1604)

o “No Bishop, No King” Court Expenses

Tonnage and Poundage/Monopolies/Subsidies Duke of Buckingham: George Villiers

Impeachment Charles I (1625-1649)

Forced Loan Three Resolutions (1629) The Personal Rule (1629-1640)

o Fineso Ship Moneyo The Popish Plot/Archbishop Laud

o Civil War to Parliamentary Rule Prayer Book (1637): National Covenant Scottish Invasion (1638)

Long Parliament (1640-1653) Pym: Presbyterian

The Civil War (1642-1648) Cavaliers/Roundheads Oliver Cromwell

o Marston Moor (1644)o New Model Army o Battle of Naseby (1645)

o The English Civil War and the British Radical Tradition Generals Thomas Farfax, Henry Ireton, Oliver Cromwell

Levelers and Diggers (1642-1652) The Putney Debates (1647)

General Henry Ireton vs Colonel Thomas Rainborrow

Agreement of the People (1647) Redistricts Parliament Elect Every 2 Years Supreme Over Law, War, Diplomacy Freedom of Religion Freedom From Military Conscription Equality before Law

Rump Parliament (1648+) Execution of Charles I (Jan 30, 1649)

Common Wealth Declared Parliament Lords and Commons Religion, Politics and Society: Puritanism/Quakerism John Lilburne: An Agreement of the People (1649)

o The British Radical Tradition Radicals: Levelers and Diggers (True Levelers) General Winstanley

The True Levelers Standard Advanced (1649) Acts of the Apostles

o The Protectorate and the Return to Royalism Irish Campaign (1649-1650) Scottish Campaign (1650-1651) Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell (1653-1659)

Dutch Warso 1st (1652-1654)o 2nd (1665-1667)o 3rd (1672-1674)

Spanish War (1655-1659) Navigation Acts (1651-1673)

o Mercantilism Death of Cromwell (1659)

Charles II (1660-1685) Secret Catholic

o The English Restoration Charles II (1660-1685)

Cavalier Parliament (1661-1678)o Royalist and Anglican

Test Act (1673) James, Duke of York Whigs: Parliamentary Supremacy and Religious

Toleration Tories: Royal Supremacy and Anglican

Uniformityo Popish Plot (1679-1681)

o The Glorious Revolution James II (1685-1688)

Catholic Prefermentso Military and Civil

7 Bishops’ Case (1688)o Declaration of Indulgence

William of Orange (1650-1702) William and Mary (1689-1694-1702)

Bill of Rights/Constitutional Monarchy Toleration Act (1689)

o World War: France

Absolutism, Constitutional Monarchy, Mercantilism

Britain Uniformity, Toleration, Mercantilism

League of Augsburg (1674) Dutch Republic, Austria, Spain, German

Principalities French Invasion/William of Orange (1672)

Stadholders for Life 9 Years’ War/War of the Grand Alliance (1668-1697) England: Empire, War and Finance

Battle of the Boyne (1690) Publically Funded National Debt (1693) Bank of England (1694) London Stock Exchange (1698)

Supremacy of Parliament Over Revenue/Whig Ascendency

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) Charles “Carlos” II (1665-1700)

Louis XIV (1643-1715)/William III Anne (1702-1714) John Churchill “Duke of Marlborough” Battle of Blenheim (1704) Battle of Malpaquet (1709)

o English Election of 1710: Tory Election Victory

Treaty of Utrecht (1714)o Balance of Powero Outlaws Secret Treaties and Diplomatic

Missionso Scientific Revolution

Intellectual Curiosity New Ideas in a Troubled World General Increase in Literacy Integrated with Dynamic, Metropolitan Capitalist

Economy Supported by New Government Subsidized

Organizations The Newtonian Synthesis

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)o Optics, Calculus, Physics, Astronomyo Three Laws of Motion

Inertia Force = M*A Action=Reaction

o Theory of Universal Gravitation F=GM1M2/R2

o The Early Enlightenment Applies Skepticism and Scientific Method to Human

Society Republic of Letters/Philosophies Impact of Newton

Uniformity of Nature and Nature’s Laws Observation and Data

John Locke (1632-1704) Influenced by Newton/Descartes

Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Reason

Two Treaties on Civil Government (1690) Natural Rights

Letter Concerning Toleration (1651) People are Brutish

o The Enlightenment and Religion

Humanism Deism

Rejects Revealed Religion Emphasizes Reason, Not Faith in Investigation

of Religion Rejects “Priestcraft” and Organized Religion in

Governanceo Voltaire: Bridging the Enlightenment

Francois Marie Arouet “Voltaire” (1694-1778) Letters on the English Nation (1734)

English Virtues, Educated Elites Attack Upon Organized Religion

Candide (1759)o The Enlightenment: Political Man/Woman

Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism Frederick II “The Great” of Prussia

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Spirits of the Law (1748)

o Separation of Powers Jean Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778)

The Social Contract (1762)o Sovereign People/Democracy

Romanticism Mary Wollstroncraft (1759-1797)

Vindication on the Rights of Woman (1792) o The Treaty of Utrect: Power Balanced (1714)

War of the Grand Alliance (1689-1697) War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) Spanish to Remain Independent of France Britain to get Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia from France Britain to get Asiento from Spain

Key to slavery trade Balance of Power

Political/Diplomatic Calculationso The 17th Century Crisis and the Interdiction of Imperialism

Old Empires: Spain and Portugal Christopher Columbus (1492)

o New World: Spain Vasco de Gama (1498)

o Old World: Portugal New Empires: England, France and The Netherlands

Dutch East India and West India Companieso Malaysia and Africa

British East India Company

o Indiao French Incursion (1620)

Old World Empires: Mongol Empires: India Ottoman Empire: Near East Manchu Empire: China

Mercantilism The Commonwealth (1652-1660)/Jean Colbert

Western “Atlantic” Trade Sugar, Slaves, Timber, Tobacco, Chocolate,

Dyestuffs, Manufactured Goods New World Plantation Economics

Sugarcane, Rice, Tobacco, Open Range Herdingo Cattle, Sheep, Horses: Feed Laboring

Population New World Foodstuffs (In the Old World)

Potatoes Eastern Trade

Spiceso Pepper, Cloves, Cinnamon

Drugso Opium

Fine Clotho Silks, Cottons

Luxury Goodso Chinao Tea

o The Atlantic Community The Atlantic (Triangular) Trade

Britain:o Manufactured and Indian Ocean goods

to Africa and Americas Africa:

o Slaves to Americas Americas:

o Sugar, Tobacco, Timber, Furs, Dyestuffs, Silver and Gold to Britain

A New Pattern of European Imperialism The British Empire: Colonists, Slaves, Goods

Free Labor/ Slave Laboro Colonial western hemisphere o African labor pool

Eastern Luxury Goods/ Indian Ocian The Slave Trade (1550-1850)

10 Million –mostly male- African Slaves

Caribbean Plantation Economies Sugar Britain and the Asiento (1714) Hardening Theories of Race

o “Scientific” knowledge as powero The Emerging British World Empire

Nationalism and the “Freeborn Rights of the Englishmen”

Rule Britannia New Pattern of Imperialism

Colonial knowledge Enlightenment arrogance

o The British North American Colonies North and South: Growing Self-Sufficiency Navigation Acts (1651-1673) The Seven Years War (1754-1763): Debt

George III (1760-1815)o Lord Bute

New Colonial Policy Efficiency Cost Reductions Security

Line of Settlement/Permanent Garrison (1763) Policy

Make colonists pay portion of security costs Sugar Act (1764)

Raise revenue by taxing foreign molasses for defense

Stamp Act (1765) Excise Taxmen Escalation and Conflict

Quartering Act (1765)o Bill of Rights (1688)

Townshend Acts (1767)o Occupation of Boston (1768)

Lord North (1770-1782)o Boston Massacre (1770)o Tea Act (1773)

Colonial Legislature (1774) Continental Congress (1775) Attacks on Lord Bute in Britain

o Parliamentary opposition Whigs and Radicals

Theatre of Liberty Revolutionary Principals (1688)

o No taxation without representation vs virtual representation

o English freedom and freedom rights Enlightenment Government

Declaration of Independenceo The Common Law o Universal Humanismo Which Law to Follow?

Escalation and Conflicto Battle of Saratoga (1777)

French Allianceo British Declare War on Dutch (1780)o Battle of Yorktown (1781)o Constitution of the United States (1787)

Social contract of make, property owning, white citizen

Popular sovereignty Revolutionary Principals

Whig Party: Parliamentary Reform and Support of Colonist

o Freeborn rights of the Englishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

o Revolution Principals (1688)o Repeal unconstitutional taxes/Raise

revenue through trade (1775) No body of men will be argued

into slavery Liberty according to English

ideas and on English principalso Impeachment of Warren Hastings

“Governor-General of Bengal” (1786-1795)

o Moral Empire? Radicals: Parliamentary Reform and Supports

American Colonies Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

o Common Sense (1776)o “Monarchical and aristocratic tyranny”

[King and House of Lords] (1776) Independence under a

Continental Chartero Universal Human Rights?

o The French Crisis Royal Bankruptcy

American Revolution Fiscal Indiscipline

Louis XV (1715-1774) Louis XVI (1774-1793)

Marie Antoinette Assembly of Notables (1788)

Second Estate Called to Fix Financial Situationo Refused to remove tax exemption

Estates General (1789) Last Called (1614)

National Assembly/Third Estate Opening of Estates General (May 5, 1789) Declaration of a National Assembly (June 17,

1789) Liberal Revolution (1789)

Royal Troops/Aristocratic Plot National Assembly/Tennis Court Oath (June 20,

1789)o 60% of all Clergyo 45% of all Nobles

Royal Coup d’ Etat (July 13, 1789)o Destruction of the Bastille (July 14,

1789) Death of Feudalism

Great Fearo Enter “the people” to “who are the

people” Feudal Laws Abolished (August 4, 1789) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

o Legal Equality and Merit o Equal Political Rights, Economic Rightso “Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood”

Bread Prices: Rise 88% by October/”Bread Riots” Politics...”Enter the People”…Three

Women’s March on Versailles Hubris

o Rationality vs Tradition Outrages Burke after Richard Price praises

French Revolution in speech (July 14, 1790)o Burke write “Reflection on Revolution in

France” Battle Against Jacobins

Bastille Day celebration (1790): The Whig Club Edmond Burke (1790)

Thomas Paine (1791) Burke breaks with Charles James Fox and

“English Jacobins”o Not 1668 but 1649: Anarchy

o The French Royalists: Right and Left Royalists (Émigrés/Constitutionalists)

Political Clubso Feuillants/Marquis de Lafayette

Slowly become Republicanso Jacobins/Maximillian Robespierreo Cordieliers/Georges Danton, Jean Paul

Morat L’ Ami du Peuple (1790-1793)

o Jacques Rene Hebert Pere Duchesne (1790-1794)

Emergence of the Sans Culottes Cultureo The Revolution Radicalizes

Bankruptcy Averted Confiscation of Church Lands Civil Constitution of the Clergy (December 1790) King’s Flight to Varennes/National Convention

(June 20, 1791) o Single Charter Assembly

Paine Publishes “The Rights of Man” (1791)o Paine elected to the Convention (1792)

1 of 2 foreigners Haitian Revolution (1791)

Declaration of War (April 1792)o Prussian/Austrian Invasion

Louis XIV Deposed (August 10, 1792)o Provisional Government

Danton September Massacre

Coordinated by Jean Paul Marrat Battle of Valmy National Convention (January 21, 1793)

Regicide Execution of Louis XIV (Jan 21, 1793)

Paine votes to convict, votes against execution The Terror

Feuderalist Revolt/ Foreign Invasions Levee en Masse (August)

o Mass conscript Army Committee of the Public Safety: War Cabinet

o Maximilian Robespierre “Terror is the order of the day”” (September 5,

1793) The Grand Terror (March-July 1794) Justifications: Dreadful but necessary The Crisis of 1793

o Invasion of Austrians, Prussians, English, Spanish, Sardinians

o Rebellions of the Vendeens, Chouans, Royalists, Federalists

The Constitution of 1793o Universal Manhood Suffrageo Freedom of the Presso Public Educationo Rights of Propertyo Rights of Subsistenceo Accepted (June 24, 1793)

Immediately suspended until peace (October 10, 1793)

The Grand Terror A “Fever” of Executions in Paris (June-July 1794)

o Symbolism of guillotine reversed Impartial, Rational, Equal justice

now transformed into the bloody maw

o 2500 guillotined in 2 months 38% nobles 26% clergy

o French vs British Views Religion, Morality, Loyalty,

Obedience to the Laws, Independence, Personal Security, Justice, Inheritance, Protection of Property, Industry, National Prosperity, Happiness (English)

Atheism, Perjury, Rebellion, Treason, Anarchy, Murder, Equality, Madness, Cruelty, Injustice, Treachery, Ingratitude, Idleness, Famine, National and Private Ruin, Misery (French)

Total War and the “Grand Terror”

Battle of Fleurus (June 26, 1794o Overwhelming defeat of Austrians

Fall of Montagnard Terrorism The Execution of Robespierre and 20 of His

Associated, 10 Thermidor (July 28, 1794)o Thomas Paine escapes execution

through sheer luck From the Directory to Napoleon

The Directory (1795-1799) The White Terror

o 200,000 vigilante executions (1795-1796)

The Consulate (1799-1804)o Napoleon Bonaparte

A “messiah in army boots” The First French Empire (1804-1815)

What Changed with the French Revolution? The Modern World

o The End of Feudalism: equality of citizens before the law

o Representation in governance (the question who is worthy of representation?)

o The superiority of separate, secular government (or, the age of voluntary religion)

o Popular “romantic” nationalism and the modern mass military

o Anti-Colonial Revolution and the claim of Universal Human rights

The Fragmented Revolutionary Legacy The Phases of the Revolution:

o Liberal Revolution Restricted, property-owning

political democracy o Jacobin Revolution

Militant democracy as freedom struggle (social and economic as well as political)

o Reactionary Revolution Unified, militarily successful,

imperial nationalism