SEMINARIO DE TITULACIÓNumag.cl/biblioteca/tesis/manriquez_ahern_2013.pdf · 2020. 11. 11. ·...

Universidad de Magallanes

Facultad de Humanidad, Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud

Departamento de Educación y Humanidades

SEMINARIO DE TITULACIÓN

The Effect of Written Corrective Feedback and Revision on Chilean Learners’

Acquisition of English

Alumnos

Fernanda Manríquez Ahern

Camila Menéndez Cereceda

Aarón Pinto Carril

Profesor Guía

Patricia Díaz

Punta Arenas, Diciembre 2013

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“Education is the most powerful weapon

which you can use to change the world.”

Nelson Mandela

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“I take this brief space as a huge opportunity to express my profound gratefulness to our

guide thesis teacher, Patricia Díaz. I thank you for orienting us when we needed you the most

and for your total care. I would like to include all my professors as well. Also, I cannot leave

aside the greatest thesis mates ever, Fernanda and Aarón, your company, good humor and

support were the most invaluable things. Finally, I am endlessly thankful of my family for trusting

me and backing me up unconditionally through all my university years.”

Camila Menéndez

If I had to summarize these five years, I would surely use the word remarkable. All the

knowledge and experience gained are part of the rest of my life. So, now I believe I’m ready to

leave this behind and face the days to come. The academic road was certainly more pleasant with

the teacher who traced it during the career: Miss Patricia Díaz. Thank you for not letting us meet

the ‘easy way’! In the same field, I have to mention my friends of life: Camila, Trini and Cesia;

my three little shining stars who walked with me during this time and the ones who I can always

laugh with. Also to Aarón, who has been a great support during this whole year; thank you for

the time shared. Finally, I would not be where I am if my enormous family were not encouraging

me every day. Particularly, to Isa and mom, who are my strength in the good and bad times; my

arms and my legs! As any story, the end saves the greatest: Rodolfo. Dad, I made it! I kept my

promise and I know you are proud. Thank you for my life and for allowing me to be what I am.

My piece of heart, we’ll meet again as the partners of route we are.

Fernanda Manríquez

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“I, Aarón, would like to express my gratitude to Mercedes Carril and Isadora Pinto,

whose backing and love cannot be measured in plain words, their diligent and beautiful

personalities have always been roles to follow and the focus of deepest honor and great respect;

to José, Sonia and Pablo Serpa whose assistance and involvement have shown how inspiring and

charitable a home is, their steady support will never be forgotten; to Efira Aravena, who during

my years as a student, embraced me with a friendly smile and patience; to Miss Patricia Diaz,

whose fervor for education and enrichment of ideas and feedback, made of the academic

boundaries a vast consciousness as an educator, and gave a promising view as chief of the

career. Finally, to Fernanda and Camila, who displayed a loving sympathy and hardworking

spirit when needed, thanks for all the good times.”

Aarón Pinto

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ABSTRACT

The acquisition of a second language is a complex process that involves different types of

techniques. One of those is providing feedback. This epistemological study has as a main question

whether the written feedback has an effect on Chilean EFL students. Written feedback is defined as all

comments delivered by a teacher to a pupil in an assessment procedure. During the first stage of the

investigation, a thorough bibliographic study was carried out. Then, all of the strategies considered were

planned and the subjects to be observed were chosen. Finally, the observation process took place. The

individuals were under surveillance in terms of participation, motivation and change of behavior in

general. In the end, feedback was a means to enhance the students’ performance; however, the research

showed that there is not a significant factor that could lead educators believe that feedback can improve

the scholar’s academic performance relevantly. Nonetheless, if provided in an efficient way, timely, and

precisely, the pupil is more likely to accept these annotations, take action afterwards and show some kind

of progress through the learning process and acquisition of a second language.

Key words: acquisition, second language, technique, feedback, written feedback, teacher, pupil, assessment procedure, observation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………xi

I. Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………………1

1. Language………………………………………………………………………………………..2

1.1 Second Language………………………………………………………………………….4

1.1.1 Second Language Acquisition…………………………………………………………...5

2. English in Chile…………………………………………………………………………………8

2. 1 Initiatives Proposed…...………………………………………………………………....10

2.1.1 English Opens Doors……………………………………………………………….10

2.1.1.1 Competitions……………………………………………………………...10

2.1.1.2 English Teachers’ Professional Development…………………………....12

2.1.1.3 English Camps……………………………………………………………12

2.1.1.4 Training in the Countryside……………………………………………....13

2.1.2 SIMCE……………………………………………………………………………...13

2.1.3 English Pedagogical Hours…………………………………………………………14

2.1.4 Resources for Students…...………………………………………………………...14

2.1.5 Standards for English Teachers………………………………………………..…...14

2.2 English in Chilean Classrooms…………………………………………………………..15

2.2.1 The Chilean EFL Student…………………………………………………………..15

2.2.2 The Chilean EFL Teacher………………………………………………………......17

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3. Assessment…………………………………………………………………………………….19

3.1 Definition………………………………………………………………………………...19

3.2 Aims……………………………………………………………………………………..23

3.3 Types of Assessment…………………………………………………………………….26

3.3.1 Formative Assessment……………………………………………………………...26

3.3.2 Summative Assessment…………………………………………………………….28

3.3.3 Self-assessment……………………………………………………………………..29

3.4 Opportunities for Teachers given by Assessment……………………………………….32

3.5 Opportunities for Students given by Assessment………………………………………..33

3.6 Advantages of Assessment………………………………………………………………35

3.7 Drawbacks of Assessment……………………………………………………………….37

4. Feedback……………………………………………………………………………………….39

4.1 Definition………………………………………………………………………………...39

4.2 Principles………………………………………………………………………………...41

4.3 Aims……………………………………………………………………………………..46

4.4 Functions………………………………………………………………………………...49

4.5 Types of Feedback……………………………………………………………………….49

4.5.1 Formative Feedback………………………………………………………………...50

4.5.2 Evaluative Feedback………………………………………………………………..51

4.6 Opportunities of Feedback for Teachers………………………………………………...51

4.7 Opportunities of Feedback for Students………………………………………………...52

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4.8 Teacher’s Role…………………………………………………………………………...52

4.9 Student’s Role…………………………………………………………………………...53

4.10 Effective Feedback……………………………………………………………………..54

4.11 Non-effective Feedback………………………………………………………………...60

4.12 Overcoming Obstacles………………………………………………………………….62

4.13 Effects of Feedback…………………………………………………………………….64

4.13.1 When Feedback is effective………...……………………………………………..65

4.13.2 When Feedback is non-effective…………………………………………………..69

4.14 Post-feedback Process………………………………………………………………….71

II. Methodological Framework…………………………………………………………………...74

1. Paradigm of the Investigation………………………………………………………………….75

1.1 Type of Study……………………………………………………………………………75

1.2 Epistemological Approach………………………………………………………………80

2. Data Collection techniques and Instruments…………………………………………………..82

III. Scenario and characteristics of the subjects under investigation……………………………..86

1. Scenario: School background………………………………………………………………….87

1.1 2º B Villa Las Nieves School……………………………………………………………87

1.1.1 School……………………………………………………………………………....87

1.1.2 Environment………………………………………………………………………..87

1.1.3 Type of School………………………………………………………………...........88

1.1.4 Vision and Mission…………………………………………………………………88

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1.1.5 Socio-economical factor……………………………………………………………89

1.1.6 Kind of Learner…………………………………………………………………… ..89

1.1.7 Presence of Educational Assistants.......…………………………………………....90

1.1.8 Kind of Teacher…………………………………………………………………….90

1.1.9 Environment inside the classroom………………………………………………….91

1.1.9.1 Conditions of the space…………………………………………………...91

1.1.9.2 The use of TICS………………………………………..…………………91

1.1.9.3 Students’ disposition……………………………………………………...91

1.1.9.4 Guide Teacher’s role……………………………………………………...92

1.1.9.5 Mood……………………………………………………………………...92

1.2 6th B Patagonia School…………………………………………………………………..92

1.2.1 School………………………………………………………………………………92

1.2.2 Type of School……………………………………………………………………..92


1.2.4 Environment………………………………………………………………………...93


1.2.6 Kind of Learner……………………………………………………………………..94

1.2.7 Kind of Teacher…………………………………………………………………….95

1.2.8 Environment inside the classroom………………………………………………….95

1.2.8.1 Conditions of the space…………………………………………………...95

1.2.8.2 The use of TICS…………………………………………………………..95

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1.2.8.3 Students’ disposition……………………………………………………...96

1.2.8.4 Teachers’ role……………………………………………………………..96

1.3 2º C INSUCO High School……………………………………………………………...96

1.3.1 School………………………………………………………………………………96

1.3.2 Environment………………………………………………………………………...97

1.3.3 Type of School……………………………………………………………………...98



1.3.6 Kind of Learner……………………………………………………………………..99

1.3.7 Kind of Teacher…………………………………………………………………….99

1.3.8 Environment inside the classroom………………………………………………...100

1.3.8.1 Conditions of the space………………………………………………….100

1.3.8.2 The use of TICS…………………………………………………………100

1.3.8.3 Students’ disposition…………………………………………………….100

1.3.8.4 Guide teachers’ role……………………………………………………..101

1.3.8.5 Mood…………………………………………………………………….101

2. Subjects of the Study…..…………………………………………………………………….102

2.1 Villa Las Nieves School ………………………………………………………………102

2.1.1 Subject 1: IG – Outstanding Performance………………………………………...102

2.1.2 Subject 2: DR – Acceptable Performance………………………………………...104

2.1.3 Subject 3: ES – Poor Performance………………………………………………...106

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2.2 Patagonia School……………………………………………………………………….107

2.2.1 Subject 1: SL – Outstanding Performance………………………………………...107

2.2.2 Subject 2: IG – Acceptable Performance………………………………………….109

2.2.3 Subject 3: VA – Poor Performance………………………………………………..111

2.3 INSUCO High School………………………………………………………………….112

2.3.1. Subject 1: JL – Outstanding Performance………………………………………..112

2.3.2 Subject 2: CL – Acceptable Performance…………………………………………114

2.3.3 Subject 3: VG – Poor Performance………………………………………………..117

IV. Analysis of Information……………………………………………………………………..120

1. Analysis Subject’s Progress…………………………………………………………………..121

1.1 Villa Las Nieves School – 2nd

Grade Elementary School………………………………121

1.1.1Subject 1: IG – Outstanding Performance………………………………………...121

1.1.2Subject 2: DR – Acceptable Performance……………………………………...…121

1.1.3 Subject 3: ES – Poor Performance………………………………………………...122

1.2Patagonia School – 6th

Grade Elementary School……………………………………...123

1.2.1Subject 1: SL – Outstanding Performance………………………………………..123

1.2.2Subject 2: IG – Acceptable Performance………………………………………….123

1.2.3Subject 3: VA – Poor Performance………………………………………………..124

1.3INSUCO High School – 2nd

Grade High School……………………………………….124

1.3.1Subject 1: JL - Outstanding Performance…………………………………………124

1.3.2Subject 2: CL – Acceptable Performance…………………………………………125

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1.3.3Subject 3 VG – Poor Performance………………………………………………...125

2. General Analysis of the Grades………………………………………………………………127


Grade Elementary School………………………………127

2.2 Patagonia School – 6th

Grade Elementary School……………………………………...127

2.3 INSUCO High School – 2nd

Grade High School……………………………………….129

Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………..132

Implications……………………………………………………………………………………..136

Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………………………...137

Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………140

References………………………………………………………………………………………141

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………...147

Appendix 1 – Written Feedback Evidence……………………………………………...148

Appendix 2 – Figures……………………………………………………………………149

Appendix 3 – Graphics………………………………………………………………….151

Appendix 4 – Written Feedback Test Chart…………………………………………….152

Appendix 5 – Written Feedback First WorkshopChart...………………………………154

Appendix 6 – Written Feedback Second Workshop Chart……………………………...156

Appendix 7 – Written Feedback Third Workshop Chart………………………………..158

Figures and graphics

Fig. 1: Results according to Socio-economical Group……………………….…………..16

Fig. 2: Aspects of Assessment for Learning...……………………………………………36

Fig. 3:The Feedback Loop...……………………………………………………………..46

Fig. 4: Factors contributing to the Informative Value of Feedback....……………………66

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Graphic 1: Percentages of Certificates according to English hours per week...………….16

Graphic 2: Percentages of Certificates according to English first classes………………..17

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INTRODUCTION

The first aspect to cover is the one regarding how to improve the pedagogical

performance in relation to the aspect treated in the research. Since written error correction is a

long-established educational and methodological practice that can be found at any level of the

learning process, it is reasonable to associate it to almost everything we learn. From that

perspective, it is sensible to think that this strategy can broaden the range of benefits and

opportunities for the instructor improving her/his own performance as educators. When

corrective feedback is taken personal teachers’ experiences are found boosted as well as

observations tasks when it comes to evaluate what really works and what does not with learners.

Notorious amplification and progress have even been seen at an intuition level and professional

training.

Concerning the reflection needed to highlight the importance on providing written

feedback, the following can be stated. Written corrective feedback gives the chance to be clear

when describing the particular area to be improved at the same time that allows being specific

about correction for avoiding potential misunderstandings. Also, it permits to provide strong

examples, plans or certain patterns to be followed so as to achieve the expected product. What is

more, there is opportunity to justify analysis, comments and suggestions by using logic thinking

based on facts. In fact, only by the application and usage of these tools corrective feedback will

prove if and how it can help students to become more able and autonomous learners.

As a third side to treat, there must be an emphasis on enhancing the teacher-students

rapport. Careful teacher correction can be the key for making this process formative. If corrective

feedback is given in a supportive and positive way by focusing on developing skills and

strengthening areas that need improvement, rather than criticizing or judging, consequences can

result in an active and willing attitude from the students towards the subject, progress in

relationships and communication between and among individuals and groups. Only if instructors

really show authentic care and honesty, then students will perceive and understand that the

educator is really interested in their performance, learning and development as students and as a

subject as well.

Concerning the relevance of the topic, the effect that written corrective feedback has on

Chilean learners is shaped by several aspects that must be taken into consideration. In a first

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stage, the nature of the written feedback needs to be proved: it can be negative or positive.

Having this into consideration, teachers of all subjects need to be very cautious and careful when

providing any kind of advice or comment to the work, in-class assignments, tasks, etc.

On one side, negative written feedback is directly related to factors such as unclearness,

non-significant indicators, incoherence and inconsistency from the comments. Hence, the effects

of it on the students will have plenty of drawbacks. On the contrary, positive written feedback is

connected to the accuracy demonstrated by the teacher on his/her assessment. Some of the

characteristics of it are: meaningful indicators which encounter their base on the aspects to be

evaluated, suggestions to improve the weaknesses and recognition of the strengths. Consequently,

the results of it will demonstrate the advantages of applying this type of feedback as an

assessment tool.

Another possibility among the nature of feedback is the absence of it. In this particular

case, the outcomes will be closer to the negative side, as this fact abolishes the students’

opportunity to know in which aspects they need to make a deeper progress on, and which are the

ones that do not present further difficulties.

Regarding the following stage in terms of the importance of written feedback, it is

mandatory to extrapolate the general idea of the concept to the practical field within the Chilean

classrooms. In general terms, in Chile, as in most places of the world, globalization has become a

phenomenon of progressive growing; therefore, English as the current universal language has a

high value in our society.

In a more specific field, there is a whole procedure in progress related to feedback within

Chilean classrooms. The current programs do not include it as something mandatory, however as

time goes by, teachers have been implementing it as a useful tool of assessment from the high

expectancies basis.

Then, the questions to be solved have to be carefully stated in order to base the research in

the correct trace.

In the last few decades, the Spanish language used by Chileans has been noticeably

influenced by another tongue that is considered a global language. English has increasingly

become such a powerful language, that Latin America has received numerous of its words and

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expressions, enriching its own lexis. Another fact which confirms the significance that this dialect

has acquired is the awareness of people of its own importance and their determination in order to

learn it. This is supported by the ever-growing number of learners of English in Chile. In fact,

many students of all ages and adults are trying to enhance their listening and speaking skills

through several resources. For instance, music and television: most of the input comes from

songs and shows spoken in this foreign language. These facts and other data buoy the progressive

acquisition of popularity of the English language and its influence in Spanish-speaking countries.

The Chilean Ministry of Education has realized the relevance of acquiring a foreign

language as English is, implanting initiatives so as to encourage students to keep on working to

achieve their objective. Many regulations have been proposed and evaluated and, some have been

approved by the Congress. One of the most important ones is the rise in the amount of

pedagogical hours of the English subject. As a result, students should be more time of their week

in touch with this tongue. However, the quality of teaching, the methodologies applied, the

strategies selected and the ways to measure knowledge and other abilities are completely apart

from the amount with which this subject is imparted. In other words, quantity does not

necessarily mean quality. Fortunately, measures have also been taken in order to satisfy this

point. Professional Development courses, different kinds of trainings, and internships abroad are

just some of the opportunities teachers of English can opt for when trying to improve their

pedagogical performance.

Nonetheless, one of the weakest aspects of the teaching praxis is the provision of

corrective feedback. Teachers of English and any other subject tend to be disoriented in relation

to how to provide an effective corrective feedback. Consequently, they only test students with a

written test, check their exams, count the points, and give them their corresponding mark or

grade. Finally, pupils are in front of a number or letter which supposedly tells them how good

they are at English, but have no comment about their performance whatsoever. This has

absolutely no sense and it becomes a useless type of measurement for them.

Furthermore, the following research will be devoted to the investigation of the written

corrective feedback and revision, and its effect on Chilean EFL students. While the study is being

carried out, several questions will be answered as a help to guide the line of investigation and to

meet the objective of it. Such queries are:

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What is written corrective feedback?

Are there any types of written corrective feedback? If yes, which are they?

Is there an effect produced by providing written corrective feedback on the acquisition of

English of Chilean learners? If yes, what is (are) the effect(s)?

How do written corrective feedback and the acquisition of English of Chilean learners

relate?

Having no more to point out, the invitation to read is open to all audience. However, and

very specifically, the following investigation pretends to be addressed to English teachers,

learners of English and trainees who are close to become educators of this foreign language. The

importance of feedback must be shared with the educators (and future educators) in order to be

applied as well as assimilated by the learners who are the ones who will feel the positive effects

they could reach with a proper assessment process.

Written feedback with its definition, aspects and procedure needs to be treated by

everybody who is involved in teaching-learning process. The idea is to identify and familiarize

with the topic so as to establish certain goals to reach by means of this method.

The research will be divided into 4 big chapters including: the theoretical framework, the

methodological framework, the scenario, the characteristics of the subjects under investigation

and the analysis of the information; besides, each one of them has been subdivided in several

subtitles so as to provide a proper organization. The development of it will be based on a

qualitative approach; the thesis is structured and well-organized, being easy to read and follow.

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I. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

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1. Language

Language and its definition; language and its use; language from different perspectives;

language and its theoretical aspects; language and its development. As a first base to build a

definition of language, a generic definition is required. Essentially, the concept is identified as the

method of communication used by human beings; using common words and structures.

Language has always been present among humans and all normal humans acquire a

language in the first few years of life being that knowledge largely acquired through an

unconscious sort. There is no distinction in terms of cultures, countries, continents, economical

issues, etc. Every human is capable to use at least one language, being biologically equipped to

develop this singular task. What is more, everybody needs it; everybody develops it. Life would

be impossible to be imagined without the use of it, and communication is undoubtedly

indispensable; language is identified as the means to accomplish it.

As time goes by and humanity has been gradually evolving, language inevitably has

changed too. From its structures and words to its sounds and meanings; people have impact on it

more and more each time, doing a constant transformation.

The phenomenon of language is enormous; therefore, it should be treated from several

perspectives to reach accuracy in its definition. To accomplish this task, three authors will be

chosen in order to consider diverse viewpoints.

In first place, Hedeager (2003) states that language could be defined as “an ability to

exchange information which is shared by all communication systems”.1 Basically, it is a principle

that proposes the process of language as a continuous and progressing movement of information

within certain systems.

On the other hand, and from a cultural perspective, it could be said that a particular world

view is imposed by each language. The language you assimilate and later speak, will depend on

the culture you have been raised in; the place you were born in; the circumstances of your

1Hedeager, U. (2003) IS LANGUAGE UNIQUE TO THE HUMAN SPECIES? Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.columbia.edu/~rmk7/HC/HC_Readings/AnimalComm.pdf

3

existence. Therefore, it is important to point out a relationship between the language the

individual belongs to and the perspective of the world (realities and basic concepts) he/she will

acquire because of it.

Taking another author’s viewpoint, Ferdinand Saussure (cited on ‘Ferdinand de

Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics’ by Alex Scott, 2011)2declares in a first stage that

“language is a system of signs. Language is the social manifestation of speech”.3 Thus, without

the consolidation of societies and all their related factors, language would not exist.

Then, the phenomenon of language will concretely be the existing link between thought

and sound; and also, the sort of means that thought can be expressed as sound. This is a more

specific and technical field in which it is proper to analyze Saussure’s reasoning. What is

postulated is that what is identified as thoughts must be ordered and must become articulated so

as to produce language. Language moves between what is known as thought and the later sound;

and the combination of them is the reliable fact that allows communication to take place.

In contrast, and from a social view of language and its development throughout time, Lev

Vygotsky, the most remarkable icon in authors, has treated the topic. Firstly, he puts emphasis on

culture affecting/shaping the cognitive progress. Immediately after, the social factors make an

essential contribution in that cognitive aspect as well. The result of it is building the

corresponding meanings. As a conclusion, social learning tends to precede the development

process.

Last but not least, Wittgenstein (cited in ‘Phenomenal Concepts and Wittgenstein’s

Private Language Argument’ by Prinz&Pris, 2013) 4 thinks that language is first and foremost a

representational system; with language making pictures of facts. The product of pictures and facts

2 Scott, A. (2011). Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/saussure.html

3Ibid.

4Prinz, M &Pris, F. (2013).Phenomenal Concepts and Wittgenstein’s Private Language Argument.Retrieved on

September 2013; from:

http://www.academia.edu/3250579/Phenomenal_Concepts_and_Wittgensteins_Private_Language_Argume

nt_short_version_2013_in_English_

4

will become notion of units, identified as lexical items or words within a language that refers to

certain objects.

A sentence is meaningful if and only if it is a fact which corresponds to a possible fact in

the world; it is true if it corresponds to an actual fact. But what does correspond mean? That is

the question to be answered.

In basic terms, his theory postulates the following:

To the objects correspond the elements of the picture in the picture.

The elements of the picture stand, in the picture, for the objects.

The picture existsif its elements are combined with one another in a definite way.

The picture is a fact.

In order to be a picture a fact must have something in common with what it pictures.

What the picture must have in common with reality in order to be able to represent it after

its manner--rightly or wrongly--is its form of representation.

1.1 Second Language

“A language learned by a person after his or her native language, especially as a resident

of an area where it is in general use”.5 Every individual grows up within a certain culture and

determined environment which provides the so called mother tongue. Then, the second language

corresponds to the acquired in parallel to the former one.

When referring to the methods to introduce a second language, the first to be pointed out

is the fact that any person (child, in most cases) can acquire it as long as he/she has the language

skills developed. The two options to make a successful introduction of it are: speakers of the

second language (L2) or second language as part of the schools’ curricula.

5IAC Corporation (2013). Second language.Dictionary.com, LLC. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/second+language

5

In the teaching aspect, there are plenty of factors to take into account. Some of these and

the most relevant ones are: motivation, reasons behind the language acquisition and proper

environment to do so.

1.1.1 Second Language Acquisition

Taking Ellis’ perspective (2008)6 in an attempt to answer the question of ‘what is second

language acquisition?’ For one thing, in this context ‘second’ can refer to any language that is

learned subsequent to the mother tongue. Therefore, the second language (L2) can refer to any

acquired after the L1 is learned, regardless of whether it is the third, fourth or fifth language.

Also, ‘second’ is not intended to contrast with foreign.

On the same thought, Gass (2008) makes use of the term referring to Second Language

Acquisition (SLA) as “the process of learning another language after the native language has

been learned.”7 Thus, it can be established that SLA is associated to the learning of a nonnative

language after the mother tongue has been acquired. By this term, it can be said that this

acquisition can take place both in a classroom situation as well as in a more ‘natural’ way by

exposure situations: “L2 acquisitions, then, can be defined as the way in which people learn a

language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside a classroom, and Second Language

Acquisition (SLA) as the study of this”8. Second language acquisition is the formal process which

takes place inside scholar systems.

According to Vygotsky (1978, mentioned on ‘Lev Vigosky’ by Saul McLeod, 2013),9

language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:

6 Ellis, R. (2008). Principles of Instructed Second Language Acquisition.Center for Applied Linguistics Digest.

Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/digest_pdfs/Instructed2ndLangFinalWeb.pdf

7Gass, S. &Selinker, L. (2008).Second Language Acquisition.Third Edition. New York & London: Routledge,

Taylor and Francis Group.

8Ibid.

9McLeod, S. (2013).LevVigotsky.Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

6

It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.

Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

Extrapolating Vygotsky’s perspective to the ‘second language acquisition’ field, the

possibility of acquiring a language apart from the mother tongue, allows children to develop and

enrich their cognitive processes.

In fact, the relationship cognitive abilities and second language learning has been explored

extensively. In 2008, Vanderplank (mentioned in ‘Second Language Learning and Cognitive

Development’ by Dicks, 2009)10

described that there exists a great development in terms of

cognitive and linguistic tools for dealing with learning tasks, “reflecting on their knowledge and

experience”11

. Furthermore, the same author adds that second language acquisition fosters: the

growth of adult like memory (memorize consciously); an inner voice (which allows using

language as a tool for thinking); and making connections.

Consequently, it can be stated that there are clear advantages for second language learners

of different ages. Particularly, evidence from the cognitive field and even from school settings

give support to the position that childhood is the most auspicious moment for school-based

second language learning. Recent research findings (NEA, 2007)12

have listed many benefits that

can be obtained from the second language study. These improvements can be found on:

Academic progress on other subjects

Basic skills development

10

Dicks, J. (2009). Second Language Learning and Cognitive Development.Second Language Research Institute of

Canada.University of Brunswick. January, 2009. Retrieved on September, 2013; from:

http://www2.unb.ca/l2/Research/current/documents/L2RIC_Notes_Jan09SLA_and_cognition.pdf

11Ibid.

12NEA (2007).The benefits of Second Language Study.Regarding World Language Education. NEA Research.

December, 2007. Retrieved on September, 2013; from:

http://www.sde.ct.gov/sde/lib/sde/PDF/Curriculum/Curriculum_Root_Web_Folder/BenefitsofSecondLangu

age.pdf

7

Higher order, abstract and creative thinking.

Cognitive development.

Student’s sense of achievement.

Standardized test score.

Cultural awareness and competency.

Chances of college acceptance, achievement and attainment.

Career opportunities.

Understanding and self-security in community and society.

8

2. English in Chile

In relation to the use of the English language in Chile, this has been a matter of concern

amongst the newer generations. On one hand, it is a reality that this foreign tongue has influenced

the Latin American nations and it has left behind numerous terms that are commonly heard by

these people. For instance, words such as: ticket, hot-dog, sandwich, cool, etc. All of these

concepts and many others are considered almost part of the Spanish lexis and their meanings are

generally known.

On the other hand, there are Chileans who are reluctant to the idea of letting English

become even more important than Spanish and it may lead to their unwillingness to learn this

language. This may be due to the reason of having prejudices against the native speakers and

their traditions or customs. Somehow they fear they might lose their own ways or lifestyles if

they let English in too much. Besides, there is another direct factor: when people believe English

is too difficult to be acquired, they prefer to avoid the risks of encountering failure; thus, no effort

is done to attempt to learn the language.

However, sometimes is simply too hard to struggle against such strong phenomenon. Kids

and teenagers are in constant touch with the English language. Internet, video-games, music,

movies, TV series, and others, are invading them with English words and expressions all the time

that get stuck very easily. Most of foreign products, from objects bought at the store to those sold

through the television, have a relationship with English. This fact has many advantages, since it

enhances their pronunciation and listening skills. Moreover, they also increasingly improve their

ability to comprehend spoken messages; it also helps in the development of cognitive features in

individuals.

The previously mentioned point leads to believe there is a significant amount of people

who are willing and want to learn English. Some of them do have the chance and there are some

others that do not have the opportunity to do it. That is the point in which the government and,

more specifically, the Ministry of Education begin to play an important role in this play. The

resources and instances are becoming more and more accessible; and the responsibility to

generate those spaces lays on that Institution. The projects, the people in charge and the money

required come from it.

9

Moreover, the Ministry of Economics sees the relevance of learning English further than a

simple pedagogical necessity. For example, a Chilean journalist named Julián Dowling (2007)13

said that it is really worrying the situation that only 2% of the adult Chilean population is able to

speak and understand English. Being such a touristic country, it is assumed that Chileans are

capable to establish a conversation in this tongue. The fact is that waitresses, taxi drivers, shop

assistants and, so on, are incompetent in this matter. The point is that this is a huge drawback

when it comes to raise the Chilean economic level or position amongst powerful nations. For

instance, there are plenty of international firms that are highly fascinated by the political and

economic solidity of Chile. They would like to invest in here, but they find themselves teaching

English to their employees. Of course, this is not the best way to optimize time and they feel they

are wasting their opportunities and money. As a consequence and, in the long run, Chile can find

its own future overshadowed if suitable answers and tools are not provided.

Having that in mind, one question arises: how can it be possible that the number of people

who speak English is so low in a country that has strong political connections and businesses

with countries such as The United States, Great Britain and Canada? The fact is that there is a

great lack of interest that goes from parents at home to employers at work, as well as a reduced

number of qualified teachers inside the classrooms and just a few opportunities to practice the

English language in our reality.

Unfortunately, research and numbers have revealed a reality even colder and bitterer. Last

SIMCE (2012)14

proved that 82% of the students do not reach the minimum level of language

usage (Agencia de la Calidad de la Educación, 2013). The test was submitted by 186.385

students, being only 31.854 able to certificate their language practice according to the levels

established by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).

13

Dowling, J. (2007). La Enseñanza del Inglés en Chile: Una Asignatura Pendiente. Revista bUSiness CHILE de la

Cámara Chileno Norteamericana de Comercio - AmCham Chile. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.businesschile.cl/es/noticia/reportaje-principal/la-ensenanza-del-ingles-en-chile-una-asignatura-

pendiente

14Ministerio de Educación (2013). Resultados SimceIIIº Medio 2012. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.mineduc.cl/usuarios/mineduc/doc/201306061729100.Resultados_SIMCE_ingles_III_Medio_20

12.pdf

10

In conclusion, the usage of the English language in Chile can be described as being

tremendously poor. Many are the reasons why people should be willing to learn it. Either because

of the economic importance or because of the globalized world societies are immersed in, the

point is that Chileans need to visualize the significance this language plays in today’s

circumstances. This is why the local government has taken measures so as to fight against the

present scenario.

2.1 Initiatives proposed

The Chilean government contemplates the dominant necessity for people living in the

country to learn English. That is why the Ministry of Education has devised different options

with the purpose to upgrade students’ level of English language. It has permanently proposed

and, luckily approved by the Congress, a series of educational reforms that involve the English

language subject taught at schools. The idea of the initiatives is to give this subject a more

important place amongst all the others in the curriculum.

2.1.1 English Opens Doors

The English Opens Doors Program (ProgramaInglésAbrePuertas, PIAP) is an initiative

created in the year 2004 with the purpose of establishing a technical leadership in order to

improve the availability of learning English as a foreign language. The program highlights the

use of modern technology including on-line courses and interactive software, which seems to be

interesting at students’ perception. English is considered as another subject and not as a language

with communicative possibilities. As a result, learners are facing a more meaningful matter.

2.1.1.1 Competitions

Public Speaking.This competition, which was born in 2008, is only one part of many

readjustments proposed by the PIAP, and is specifically directed to the development of students’

language area. This contest consists of an oral presentation based on a particular topic at the same

time that is well structured and enclosing information from accurate analysis. Also, the process

and ability of synthesis plays an important role in this contest. Main objectives are:

11

To strengthen oral speaking competences (fluency and accuracy) in the target language by

means of argument and exposition in a specific topic,

To promote critical thinking through analysis, interpretation and organization of ideas,

with the purpose of exposing a coherent and organized presentation.

Students will be evaluated according to their capacity to present the topic clearly showing

knowledge and understanding of itself, as well as an appropriate use of the voice to catch the

audience attention. Also, participants must prove themselves effective and precise when

answering questions referred to the topic covered. The rubric is based on the following indicators:

content, reasoning and evidence (organization); reliability (ability to guide the audience); answers

to questions (precise and effective), and oral expression (Eye contact, voice, body language,

vocabulary, pronunciation and fluency).

Spelling Bee.Since 2012, this testing is another popular competition and part of the

improvements planned by the PIAP with the clear intention to boost students’ personal and

language development. Indeed, it is a contest that measures students’ spelling capacity within

English language in an accurate way as well as considering the time (one minute). Its objectives

are:

To motivate students to research and study about the English language.

To awaken students’ interest in spelling learning English words in a fast and accurate

manner as well as showing comprehension,

To give a chance to students to interact and participate among peers within a peaceful and

friendly competition.

Torneos de Debates en Inglés. These tournaments were created in 2005 and in that

particular time only two regions participated. Fortunately, it has been fostered and it has

produced the desired effect. It has caused great interest making possible for the entire country to

be in it, including more than 700 institutions and 400 students. These meetings have as

elementary objectives:

To strengthen students’ English skills by means of reasoning and opinions showing solid

arguments and evidence based on research,

12

To promote critical thinking development via analysis, interpretation or suitable

organization of ideas and information so as to expose arguments, challenge and questions

evidence, and debate opponents’ exposition with a clear and coherent message.

Within this testing, indicators will surround: content (topic comprehension and

understanding); organization (planning and preparation); and presentation (eye contact, voice,

pace, audience attention and pronunciation).

2.1.1.2 English Teachers’ Professional Development

So all English teachers can accomplish a level equivalent to B2 in CEFR register

(Common European Framework of Reference); the Ministry of Education, since 2004, has

introduced a teacher professional development plan that encloses advancement in basic levels of

upgrading for all English teachers that work in the public and subsidized system. These are

delivered using English courses along with methodology components according to levels: A1,

A2, B1 and B2. What is meant to be accomplished through this process is the enhancement of

English instructors so as to have more competent teachers.

In 2012, the range of academic plans for advanced training levels was expanded, with the

intention to cope with the system needs and reinforce the professional evolution of English

teachers at primary level.

For the current year, it has been calculated in advance a considerable number of 665

scholarships only for English teachers. These gratifications correspond to English Courses A1,

A2, B1, and B2 levels (200 hours) and a degree on English Teaching at Primary Level (700

hours).

The Ministry of Education will award scholarships to the ones who take part in these

advanced courses. The benefits will cover the 80 % of the course total amount, which signifies a

large portion to encourageprofessionals’ improvement in the language teaching.

2.1.1.3 English Camps

These English immersion programs are designed for public and subsidized secondary

students’, and with the main goal to give them a chance to make use of the language in context

with interactive activities carried out mainly during winter and summer recesses, by means of a

13

dynamic curricular plan carefully schemed by the PIAP of Ministry of Education. From 2008 to

2013, these interventions have benefitted more than 12.000 students in the whole country. The

large amount of scholars interested and participating represent the motivation they have towards

being in touch with the English language and, also, the encouragement that parents/guardians

promote for the pupils to attain their desires.

A camp is an activity that takes place throughout one week, from 10:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m.,

led by both a group of native language speakers and Chilean English teachers, who are constantly

providing the student proper material and food. Also, English Pedagogy students can participate

in the process of camps if they apply for this positive opportunity.

2.1.1.4 Training in the Countryside

The English Opens Doors program initiated the training processes to English teachers that

work in the countryside of our region. In this occasion, the topic to be treated will have a direct

connection to the planning procedure called ‘it´s my turn’. The objective behind this activity is to

improve the learning of English among students who live far away from the city. In addition,

there is a purpose of supporting teachers’ knowledge and competences to facilitate the

assimilation of the foreign language.

2.1.2 SIMCE

In 2012, this assessment was created by Cambridge ESOL Examination taking into

account both, national curriculum and CEFR levels. The fact is that, since 2010, this standardized

instrument is intended to measure students’ language level. It is considered that determining the

starting level is the first step for improving and, consequently, taking appropriate decisions to

find solutions to resolve the conflicts visualized. Also, it is worth mentioning that it gives

relevant information about schools and families status.

14

2.1.3 English Pedagogical Hours

In 2011, MINEDUC increased the quantity of hours for English classes, from 2 to 3 in the

case of 5th and 6

th grade. Consequently, there should be an equal number in this subject for all

courses at primary level.

2.1.4 Resources for Students

Since 2012, the Ministry has been giving free English books to schools, willing to start

with the subject before 5th

grade. In 2013, texts were given to more than 4 thousand institutions,

supporting more than 600 thousand students’ learning. Moreover, one dictionary book has been

given to every student from 5th

grade to 1st high school since 2012. Still, every year more than

600 thousand students are receiving such support.

2.1.5 Standards for English Teachers

Students must improve their English level, but teachers have to do it as well. The contents

are limited and the skills are left behind, thus, as a country, several changes are needed

throughout curricular matters so as to modify that low reality previously mentioned. The

scholarship system has been gaining popularity among teachers as an efficient method to

assimilate the language in a better way. The Chilean government has established connection with

different ambassadors with the purpose of increasing the number of qualified professionals.

One measure taken by the Ministry of Education since 2012, in order to guarantee that

students are being taught by competent teachers, is regulating the language level of English

teachers. As a way to accomplish this task international examinations such as Cambridge

Placement Test have been considered.

Also, MINEDUC is working on certain parameters in order to evaluate English teachers

competences once they have just left university. Additionally, this will be a convenient

instrument for colleges and institutions so adjustments can be done in the plans with the purpose

to match the Ministry expectations.

15

2.2 English in Chilean Classrooms

2.2.1 The Chilean EFL Student

It is proved that the Chilean population has serious problems when dealing with situations

in which English language is required (Dowling, 2007),15

and it is in this field that research and

numbers have revealed a reality that is even more overwhelming, as results in the SIMCE Test

are not showing any improvement in language acquisition in the Chilean public students.

The lack of interest and other important factors might be affecting the learning of the

English language. However, as it has been mentioned, the government has visualized this serious

conflict and proposed several measures in order to improve these kinds of results in the following

years. It is clear and logical that the process of acquiring a foreign language is ongoing and rather

slow. Maybe, the results are not going to be obtained in four or ten years, but the idea that it is

necessary to enhance this area is out of question.

Nevertheless, thanks to this testing there were discovered significant elements that play a

key role within the students’ development and academic performance when acquiring English as

a second language. Amongst these, there can be found the socioeconomic context/background in

which the student lives, the amount of pedagogical hours of English classes and how early the

student starts to attend to English classes. The first feature proved that there is a vast breach in

English learning accomplishment between high and low social classes. While the high class

scored 83, 3 % on A2 and B1 levels, the lower achieved only 0, 8% in this matter considering

language acquisition a privilege of the upper classes:

15Dowling, J. (2007). La Enseñanza del Inglés en Chile: Una Asignatura Pendiente. Revista bUSiness CHILE de la

Cámara Chileno Norteamericana de Comercio - AmCham Chile. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.businesschile.cl/es/noticia/reportaje-principal/la-ensenanza-del-ingles-en-chile-una-asignatura-

pendiente

16

Figure 1:

(Source: Síntesis de Resultados, SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012)

Secondly, according to the 2012 SIMCE results, 25% of the students who were tested that

have four or more hours of English during the school-week are able to certificate their usage of

the language; meanwhile only 4% who have three or less hours were able to do so:

Graphic 1:

(Source: Resultados SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012)

Finally, there is an enormous difference amongst the students who started attending to

English classes as early as possible and those who began in a delayed period of school (usually

5th grade). Students who began on first classes at primary level correspond to 26% when

certificating versus only 8% for the ones who started at 5th

grade and at secondary level:

17

Graphic 2:

(Source: Resultados SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012)

As a consequence, enormous changes have been implemented into the programs and

curriculum design so as to cover the needs and try to enhance the process of learning English

inside the Chilean classroom. According to the Head of Curriculum and Evaluation of Ministry of

Education, Loreto Fontaine (Cited in “El ingléscomovía de oportunidades” by Muñoz Illanes,

Abril 2013)16

“before 2009, there was only a Foreign Language subject in which objectives,

contents and study programs were established for all courses since 7th

grade. But it has changed

with the 2009 upgrading making it mandatory since 5th

grade.”17

This seems such a small step;

nonetheless, apparently it can have really positive consequences in the study of the foreign

language by Chilean students.

2.2.2 The Chilean EFL Teacher

In Chile, there is an important number of English teachers working in public and

subsidized institutions. However, there is also a relevant quantity of instructors, not defined yet,

that give lessons at primary level scholars without having received an adequate academic training

16

Muñoz Illanes, M. (2003). El inglés como vía de oportunidades. 15/04/2003. Retrieved on September 2013; from

the site: http://www.grupoeducar.cl/actualidad/noticias/el-ingles-como-via-de-oportunidades-1051

17Ibid.

18

before, being one of the areas which most-experienced teachers need to be working with. As a

universal knowledge, the more solid the base is for any kind of acquired ability, the better the

competences observed afterwards can be. Sadly, students’ results are the most evident indicators

when it comes to graphic teachers’ work and performance into numbers, making academic and

pedagogical outcomes, unfortunately, totally unsatisfactory. Therefore, from this perspective, it is

reasonable to ask: Could it be the case that Chilean teachers are not well trained and lack of

suitable tools to deal with today’s learners?

According to a recent article published by El Mercurio newspaper (June 2013),18

which is

based on a research carried out by Mineduc, 66% of the English teachers meet the standards set

by Mineduc, and a considerable 34% fail in this area. In this report, only 2758 instructors were

tested (due to the fact that this examination was willingly taken by the subjects) and only 1.811

reached the minimum level considered appropriate to teach English.

18

El Mercurio (2013). 36 planteles dictan casi 100 pedagogías en Inglés: la mayoría tiene baja acreditación.

Publishedon Martes 4 de junio de 2013 by Alejandra Muñoz y René Olivares. Retrieved on September

2013; from: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2013/06/04/nacional/nacional/noticias/388385DC-4F55-49CD-

9FCE-3ABE2442CAA3.htm?id=%7B388385DC-4F55-49CD-9FCE-3ABE2442CAA3%7D

19

3. Assessment

One of the most common practices in the teaching and learning process around the world

is the design, application and correction of instruments to measure students’ performance.

Teachers from all different backgrounds and contexts, under varied circumstances and study

experiences have diverse ways to elaborate them and, consequently, a vast range of methods to

apply them; according to the aims to be accomplished. All of them have considered and realized

about the importance of applying various assessment procedures to test the level of their pupils

concerning knowledge reached at certain stages and, hand in hand, skills successfully developed

as time goes by.

Taking the last lines into consideration, these procedures can have multiple objectives

depending on the form the instrument is elaborated, what it pretends to measure, the type of

evaluation, and so on. Additionally, the way they are corrected might vary as well; depending on

the teacher’s perspective and classes’ objectives. Nonetheless, the ultimate purpose of assessment

(as it will be specifically outlined later) is to generate a sort of change in the student’s behavior

and performance after the feedback is fully delivered.

3.1 Definition

The concept of ‘assessment’ has been evolving through the time and it may suffer changes

from person to person who applies and takes any kind of assessment procedure. However, there

are many authors and experts in the educational field that have surpassed the time and wanted to

contribute to this important issue for enriching the essential educational purposes on behalf of its

proper development. As a first referent of authors, Fleming (2009)19

mentions Palomba, C.A.

&Bant T.W. who worked on a series of studies that, finally, led to the conclusion that

"assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about educational

programs undertaken for the purpose of improving learning and development.”20

19

Fleming, M. (2009).Definitions of Assessment Tasks. Teaching Learning Centre, UNE, last modified July, 2009.


http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/academicdevelopment/documentation/unitdevelopment/Definitions%20of%20ass

essment%20tasks.pdf

20Ibid.

http://www.une.edu.au/tlc/academicdevelopment/documentation/unitdevelopment/Definitions%20of%20assessment%20tasks.pdf


20

Considering the concept given, this definition contributes to four important points to be

taken into account. Firstly, it refers to the assessment as being a methodical process that is

intended to gather data (from general information to specific details). This remarkable point is

really important, since it mentions the procedure not as something isolated or non-complex. On

the contrary, it means that the process itself is an intricate system that may consist of many

diminutive items that make up a complex system. Besides, the fact that it is a tool that collects

information is relevant due to teachers ought to inevitably make use of this information to make

decisions afterwards.

Secondly, it says that this issue is a ‘review’. Obviously, instructors need to assess content

they have already covered. Under these circumstances, the assessment procedure should be

focused only on aspects students are already familiar with and not on something that is

completely new or unknown to their perspectives. This last point includes exercises as well as

instructions. In other words, educators must not assess or consider in an evaluation procedure

some kind of item or exercise that they have not included during the pre-established period of

classes. This can be highly negative for the learning process of students because if they are not

able to attain that specific objective, they will get frustrated and it is actually not their fault.

Thirdly, as a consequence of the previous indication, teachers must make use of the data

obtained by the instrument and take important pedagogical decisions in front of the results.

Basically, the idea is that they do not stop the learning instance when teachers deliver a grade or

mark to students, but to have this opportunity to consider alternatives to enhance the weakest

parts of a test. In fact, the purpose of assessment is that the students produce some sort of change

in their behavior even if they are given a good mark or grade. There are still comments that the

teacher needs to provide,which will enhance the pupils’ development.

Lastly, the definition establishes the purpose of assessment. This one is clearly and

closely related to the preceding fact that deals with the actions performed after the mark is given

(if that is the case). As it is universally known, most of the time, teachers provide a mark or grade

to scholars in relation to how well, or badly, they performed. In numerous cases, the process ends

here, but the most relevant point of assessment is the progress students show after that event has

been accomplished.

21

In conclusion, the former description of assessment highlights that the crucial part of

assessing is that after the procedure is carried out, the process should not end there, but to

continue as the student is able to show some kind of progress or growth in the weaker areas

contemplated in his/her performance during the assessment.

Another very complete definition of assessment is the one given by the Teaching

Effectiveness Program from the University of Oregon (2009).21

This one establishes that

“assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple and diverse

sources in order to develop a deep interpretation of what students know, understand, and can do

with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences; the process culminates when

assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning”.22

As it was clearly seen, this explanation of the concept of assessment also explores the

importance of an instance called ‘discussion’, which will be specified and argued later.

As previously stated, the instance of assessing does not end when the teacher registers a

mark, but it remains active until there is an improvement observed by the student. Therefore, for

this enhancement to be accomplished there has to take place a sort of interaction between the

pupil and the instructor so as to share the observations according to the student’s performance.

This discussion is also called ‘feedback’ and it should be as direct as possible. The process of

feedback is one of the most relevant aspects of assessment itself, indeed. It is why the procedure

is carried out due to its purpose is to search and produce a change in the scholar’s behavior

according to the weaker areas of performance visualized.

Another extra and relevant piece of this meaning of assessment is the part where it states

that the information should come from a wide range of ‘sources’. In simpler words, educators

should evaluate in different ways because they have to collect enough information from several

areas in order to take the most suitable decisions to solve the flaws. In addition, a reader could

also get the idea that the author wanted to convey the message that the perspectives of the

students’ performance need to vary.

21

Teaching Effectiveness Program, (2009).What is Assessment? Teaching Effectiveness Program, University of

Oregon. Retrieved on September, 2013.; from: http://keyarts.wikispaces.com/Assessment

22

Ibid.

22

Putting the previous point into simple words, teachers might need the collaboration of

other people who could help them in more objective and critical subjects for the purpose of

evaluating his/her pupils. This seems such a complicated notion; nonetheless, it could be really

easy to ask a colleague to assist during a period of class and assess the students. As a

consequence, learners will also feel that they are being evaluated in a way that results more

unbiased and this is going to help them ‘believe’ in the feedback they are being provided.

Furthermore, the description establishes the levels of performance in a more specific way.

This is because it makes a difference between knowing something and comprehending it. There is

an enormous dissimilarity amid those two actions. Logically, educators need to bear this

difference in mind when assessing. The reason is that a student who ‘knows’ something and has

learned it by heart, simply cannot get the same grade as another one who has acquired the

knowledge, is able to explain it, and understands it fully. Unfortunately, when students face a

multiple-choice test, rarely, they are going to be able to show any kind of their comprehension on

the topic. Most of those tests are based on knowledge and not on the domain of the subject

matter. In the end, the process results useless because educators ought not to lead their scholars to

memorize the content but to be capable of making use of it.

And, finally, it declares how relevant it is to appreciate a positive change in the students’

performance for the process to make sense at the end. As it has been already mentioned, for the

whole process of assessment to be worthy, pupils must show some kind of improvement

afterwards. If this event does not occur, the evaluation has failed by all means. Consequently, if

there is a positive change observed, the idea is that the instructors are also able to provide

comments in which they clearly demonstrate how well they have being watching his/her students

perform or improve. This way, students will also feel backed up and sense that their progress is

really meaningful and solid.

Both of the definitions considered have numerous similarities and share the main aim of

assessment that corresponds to contemplate a noticeable advance in the pupil’s feeble areas of

performance. However, the most perceptible difference between the two of them is that the first

one does not consider the process of feedback to obtain a change of behavior in the student. It

might be that this one is implicitly mentioned. This is because in order to contemplate a

modification in the student’s behavior, there must be a sort of ‘discussion’ or feedback after the

evaluation is carried out.

23

3.2 Aims

As the previous notions of assessment stated, the aims of the procedure are thoroughly

connected to taking decisions and making students positively evolve and enrich their

performance in certain criteria considered when evaluating. Most of the times the criteria teachers

mean to enhance are because they are measured as being lower than expected. Unfortunately,

these expectations are associated with the performance of the whole class. Nevertheless, the idea

to be conscious about is that not all students are going to respond the same way to different

assessment procedures and some of them need other types of evaluations to demonstrate their

competences. In consequence, enormous differences in results are not always going to be

narrowly connected to the student’s domain on certain topic. Therefore, it is necessary to be able

to carefully ‘read’ and interpret the outcomes of a test.

According to The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (THEAGC, 2004),23

this is

an instance that “provides a framework for sharing educational objectives with students and for

charting their progress”24

. Put in simpler words, teachers ought to consider assessment as an

opportunity in which they realize if students have met the goals formerly proposed. Logically,

these goals have already been provided and studied along with the pupils. Besides, these are also

coherent and make sense when it refers to the relationship they have and share with the content

covered.

Furthermore, the objectives set need to be realistic and challenging. Teachers must not

plan aims that are too high or too easy for students to accomplish them. In that way, they will

never get the right picture of the students’ level and the aim of the assessment will not be

attained. For instance, when the goals stated are too high, pupils have a great tendency to not

accomplishing them. If that is the case, they will definitely get extremely frustrated and this will

have highly negative effects on his/her performance in a near future. On the other hand, if the

23

The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, (2004).Enhancing student learning through effective formative

feedback.The Higher Education Academy (Generic Centre) The Network Centre, 4 Innovation Close, York

Science Park. June, 2004. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/resources/database/id353_senlef_guide.pdf

24

Ibid.

24

teacher proposes objectives that are way too easy, they will obtain nothing but lazy, conformist

and mediocre students that find no sense in studying more if everything results too simple for

them.

In relation to another important objective of assessment, the idea is that an instrument for

testing pupils should produce feedback information. In order to obtain this feedback data, the

assessment procedure must be well developed, applied and, consequently, this is going to offer

the possibility for students to realize their mistakes and the way they can improve their weakest

areas of performance. When the teacher corrects a test or evaluates a performance, he/she needs

to consider the criteria proposed and how well, or badly, they achieved those indicators. In regard

to this information, he/she will collect the information and elaborate the feedback to be delivered

afterwards. Ultimately, they will make use of this information and try to enhance their level of

achievement for a future occasion.

On the other hand, another association called High Education Commission (2006)25

also

delivers important information in connection with the aims of assessment. They mostly

emphasize on the repetitiveness aspect of assessment. Nonetheless, the commission proposes a

list of aims to be accomplished if assessment is well applied:

The first significant objective deals with the gathering of data that teachers want to know

about their students’ learning process and performance. Once more, the assessment

instrument should be designed in a way that accomplishes this aim, so the teacher can use

this information and make students a beneficiary after all.

The second objective refers to the aim of getting the educators more involved as well as

the other members of the educational community in the process of teaching and learning.

This goal is associated to the notion that all fellows that take part of the school should be

informed of the learners’ progress and learning development. This is explicitly mentioned

in numerous occasions; the different segments of the institution believe they do not need

25Higher Learning Commission, (2006).A Definition of Assessment.From the Higher Learning Commission.Office of

Academic Assessment.Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.uni.edu/assessment/definitionofassessment.shtml

25

to be aware of the pupils’ current circumstances and they are mistaken. The school should

work as a whole for it to be successful and, for this to occur, they ought to be updated in

regard to the students’ progress. Also, as another consequence, better results can be

obtained if more opinions and perspectives are there to solve learning difficulties.

The third aim proposed by the commission is the one that mentions the objectives planned

for them to attain. Indeed, it specifies that the assessment should generate some kind of

evidence to support (or not) the fact that the learners did (or did not) meet the objectives

set for them. This gains much importance because it reinforces the fact that the instructors

must be conscious of their scholars’ capacities and if they are able (or not) to accomplish

the goals educators have set for them. This is also connected to the previous indication

related to how to set the objectives. These ought to be realistic and challenging, not too

easy or too impossible to attain. This way, students will reach the goals feeling that they

are able to meet the educator’s expectations.

Another relevant aim mentioned is the one that states that assessment should serve as a

guide to make pedagogical decisions and apply them to positively develop in the ongoing

progress of the educational institution. This might be one of the most important processes

that take place in the course of teaching and learning. This is because assessment should

lead teachers to reflect on their academic praxis so as to evaluate which techniques are

working and which methods are not. If this happens, the whole course will make sense

and have positive effects. However, it also highlights that this one is a process that

involves other people, too. In other words, this procedure may not only have positive

consequences inside the classroom, but also the community can augment its performance

with the results obtained.

Finally, the last goal is associated with all the previously mentioned aims, since it says

that assessment works as a tool to produce impact or change on the learners’ performance.

Thus, this objective serves the purpose of a conclusion to sum up all the points stated

above and emphasizes the ultimate assessment’s achievement.

26

3.3 Types of Assessment

There is an innumerable quantity of types of assessment. They can be distributed into

different categories according to varied factors. The kind of assessment tool that will be applied

in order to test the students’ knowledge is going to depend on the objectives that the instructor

has established as well as the level of exigency, the competences to be evaluated, and the type of

feedback to be provided later, amongst others.

Most generally, teachers tend to design and implement written tests. This can be due to

the fact that they are easier to check and the marks are given by the amount of points obtained.

On the other hand, evaluating students’ less concrete competences (such as:

argumentative strength, ability to synthesize, skill to analyze or create, etc.) is much more

complicated and, because of this, is less frequent.

Besides, the fact that scholars are so used to the idea that everything they do or make is

evaluated has generated the bad habit of only exerting efforts on tasks that are assessed. On the

contrary, if the assignments are not graded, then students may simply not do it. Unfortunately

then, those non-evaluative tasks that can be an opportunity to provide feedback in an important

and beneficial type of assessment, are not going to have the desired effect.

3.3.1 Formative Assessment

As the majority of the aspects of education, formative assessment cannot be left

randomly. It has the clear intention to shape and influence students’ academic performance;

therefore, it must be a planned process which does not happen accidentally (Popham, 2008).26

According to Heritage, Kim, Vendlinski& Herman (2009),27

the universally known

concept of formative assessment is a process that works systematically and continuously so as to

“gather evidence and provide feedback about learning while instruction is under way”28

. Within

26

Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

27

Heritage, M., Kim, J., Vendlinski, T., & Herman, J. (2009).From evidence to action: A seamless process in

formative assessment? Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 28(3), 24–31.

28

Ibid.

27

this mechanism, teachers are expected to make use of the many tools, techniques and strategies

available to establish and recognize what students already know, identify inconsistency in

understanding, and arrange future instruction to boost learning. It is a way to know where the

students are in this path, and provides particular data about them. Logically, it is expected that

this will mean modifications on instructions, activities and tasks since every learner’s

circumstances vary from one to another (Perie, Marion, Gong &Wutzel, 2007).29

As it is not graded, it is a good practice to check students’ progression before going

straight to the examination. According to Giesen (2012),30

the following formative assessments

can be considered:

Direct observations during in-class activities

Homework exercises as review

Journals that are checked constantly

Interview sessions (formal & informal)

In-class activities in which students present their results

These types of assessments are considered amongst the most sensitive and precise

ongoing processes, as well as being closely attached to modern theories on teaching and learning.

Educators dispose the specific assessment to be given to students based on their needs and

concepts being taught, and the information gathered is used to separate and individualize the

instruction (Perie, Marion, Gong &Wutzel, 2007).31

29

Perie, M., Marion, S., Gong, B., &Wurtzel, J. (2007). The role of interim assessments in a comprehensive

assessment system. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute. Retrieved on September 2013; from

http://www.nciea.org/publications/PolicyBriefFINAL.pdf

30Giesen, J. (2012). Formative and Summative Assessment.Northern Illinois University, Faculty Development and

Instructional Design Center. http://facdev.niu.edu

31Perie, M., Marion, S., Gong, B., &Wurtzel, J. (2007). The role of interim assessments in a comprehensive

assessment system. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute. Retrieved on September 2013; from


28

However, some of the instructors that take part of the system tend to incline themselves

towards the more traditional ways of assessing pupils and avoid applying these techniques that, if

well-implemented, can be a very helpful instrument to assist the student’s process of learning

English.

Having all the reasons considered, it is not strange why many experts in the field and

teachers as well, argue that it should be an integral part of curriculum practices, not only in

elementary and secondary education, but also in higher education: “Formative assessment

provides information to teachers about where students are experiencing difficulties and where to

focus their teaching efforts”32

(The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, 2004).

3.3.2 Summative Assessment

Summative assessments are the types which most people are familiar with. It is commonly

performed in order to realize how well students have learned what they were supposed to have

learned during a certain period of time. Generally, they are given “one time at the end of some

unit such as semester or school year to evaluate students’ performance against a defined set of

content standards”33

(Perie, Marion, Gong &Wutzel, 2007). From this, it can be inferred that

these examinations are the least flexible assessments since a grade derives from it and students

are expected to work intensively with course material. These tests are less individualized and less

focused on specific students’ skills, instead, learners are supposed to manifest a range of skills

and knowledge acquired during the course. Additionally, those standards mentioned also refer to

the pre-established objectives set by the teacher and known by the students.

32



Science Park. June, 2004. Retrieved on September, 2013; from:


33Perie, M., Marion, S., Gong, B., &Wurtzel, J. (2007). The role of interim assessments in a comprehensive

assessment system. Washington, DC: The Aspen Institute. Retrieved on September, 2013; from


29

Although, there is no rule or any fixed requisite for the format of summative assessment

procedures, some, like Giesen (2012),34

have provided a list of them:

Examinations

Papers

Projects

Portfolios

Performances

Instructor self-evaluation

Summative testing is more product-oriented, and once one of the assessments is finished,

no further revisions can be done. Yet, if this happens and students are left to make revisions, the

assessment turns into formative, an opportunity in which they can take advantage to improve and

complete the final product. In other words, summative assessment per se, does not let the teacher

see if there is any sort of future change of behavior presented by the student afterwards.

However, if the occasion is offered, then the type of assessment would become now ‘formative

assessment’.

3.3.3 Self-Assessment

Andrade and Du (2007)35

contribute with a clear definition of self assessment that centers

on the formative learning that it can encourage:

“Self-assessment is a process of formative assessment during which students

reflect on and evaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the

34

Giesen, J. (2012). Formative and Summative Assessment.Northern Illinois University, Faculty Development and

Instructional Design Center. http://facdev.niu.edu

35 Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 32 (2), 159-181. University at Albany: Routledge, Taylor and

Francis Group. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://theeffectiveeducator.wikispaces.com/file/view/Andrade+%26+Du--+Self+Assessment

30

degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths

and weaknesses in their work, and revise accordingly”36

. (p. 160)

The very complete definition exposes that in this process students are expected to gather

information about their personal development and check if it meets previous expectations, goals

and criteria for their work. This collection of information is supposed to be attained through an

important and meaningful reflection on the work that scholars have done so far. Besides, an

evaluation of the work also means registering a mark on how well, or badly, he/she did. The

veracity and reliability with which this process is carried out is going to depend on how well the

objectives are stated as well as the indicators established according to the students’

performances.

Nonetheless, teachers play a key role on this matter: they must support students and guide

them “to identify standards/criteria that apply to their work and to make judgments about how

their work relates to these standards.”37

(The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre,

2004).Thus, teachers are pioneers to build this process inside the classroom and promote the

students’ self-regulation capacity. In addition, self-assessment is not a process scholars can do by

themselves. Without having teachers that lead the path for them to realize whether they are doing

a good job, it becomes complex to believe that pupils are going to effectively prove they know

they have met the goals established beforehand.

Instructors have to give room to more formal and structured opportunities so students can

monitor their own performance and evaluate themselves whether they are going somewhere in

terms of goal progression; to work on this self-assessment is a good way since it boosts

reflection on process and the outcomes of learning (The Higher Education Academy Generic

36Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 32 (2), 159-181. University at Albany: Routledge, Taylor and

Francis Group. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://theeffectiveeducator.wikispaces.com/file/view/Andrade+%26+Du--+Self+Assessment

37The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, (2004).Enhancing student learning through effective formative




31

Centre, 2004).38

Sometimes, the process of self-assessment is not considered as important as it

should be. But, for students to realize their progress, it is important for teachers to provide the

chances to assess their own work.

In addition, the benefits can be abundant and prodigious; according to Spiller (2012),39

making judgments of personal progress is a vital ingredient to the learning process; therefore,

many advantages can be found:

Self-evaluation helps to create a natural tendency to check out one’s own learning

progress regularly,

If any student is able to identify his/her learning growth, he/she can feel motivated

to keep on going further,

Self-evaluation fosters reflection, responsibility and autonomy,

Self-assessment can awake a lifelong skill in students. It can help to prepare

students to solve not just current problems but problems that cannot be conceived

at the moment.

Effectively, further research has proved that if students are directly involved with their

own learning, assessing their personal performance, reflecting on objectives, goals, strategies and

outcomes, there are more chances to enhance learning and achievement (McDonald and Boud,

2003).40

This reaffirms the idea that the student needs to be responsible and in charge of his/her

own learning. On the contrary, they are not going to weigh the relevance that is behind the whole

process of learning.

38


feedback. The Higher Education Academy (Generic Centre) The Network Centre, 4 Innovation Close, York



39 Spiller, D. (2012).Assessment Matters: Self-Assessment and Peer Assessment. Produced by: Teaching

Development Unit | WāhangaWhakapakariAko. Private Bag 3105. Hamilton 3240 New Zealand. Retrieved

on September 2013; from: http://www.waikato.ac.nz/tdu/pdf/booklets/9_SelfPeerAssessment.pdf

40

McDonald, B. &Boud, D. (2003).The impact of self-assessment on achievement: the effects of self-assessment

training on performance in external examinations. Assessment in Education 10 (2), 209–220. Retrieved on

September, 2013; from: http://pdpracticestsd.wikispaces.com/file/view/MacDonald.SelfAssessment.pdf

32

3.4 Opportunities for teachers given by assessment

The process of assessment offers a series of benefits for the instructors to take advantage

of. For example, THEAGC (2004)41

says that the information gathered by the testing tool “can

also help teachers realign their teaching in response to learners’ needs”.42

In other words,

educators should visualize assessment as an opportunity to evaluate their own teaching practice.

This point also states the importance for a teacher to get to know and be familiar with his/her

pupils’ necessities. These ones might be academic or non-academic. However, all of them are

important and affect the process of learning in some way. Considering the requirements students

have through the complicated age they are living, educators ought to reflect their praxis in order

to adjust themselves to each specific context. This is the only way the learning process will result

positive for both parts.

In the process that comes afterwards, if the educators realize that there are certain

weaknesses in their teaching practice, they can analyze the critical situation and make important

decisions in order to improve their flaws. They need to be aware that all contexts change and the

teaching process itself is modified through the time: it is a dynamic procedure. If they accomplish

the task of reflecting on their practice and making significant academic decisions to be applied

inside the classroom, as a result, they will feel better about their performance as teachers and,

consequently, they will most likely receive improved outcomes from the next assessment

procedure.

Also, assessment should be considered by instructors as well as by scholars, as a good

opportunity for them to communicate with each other. For instance, when the feedback is

provided, teachers should take into account the way to establisha healthy rapport with his/her

pupils. This is definitely going to improve their relationship and could ultimately benefit their

relationship in general. Of course, there are many features that take part in this rapport for it to be

41





42

Ibid.

33

effective, positive and have quality consequences. For example, teachers need to find the correct

words to communicate the results they obtained and how they can improve their feeble areas of

performance; also, the student should be respectful towards the criticism expressed by the

teacher; and the time in which this is delivered needs to be appropriate as well, finding the

appropriate context to provide the information gathered. If all these aspects are combined, along

with some others, the assessment is going to be the chance for the teacher to establish a

meaningful and suitable rapport with students.

Lastly, the opportunities provided above, are only two from others that can be withdrawn

from evaluating students. And, if these opportunities are really considered and taken into

advantage, they are definitely going to serve as a chance to lighten the teaching and learning

atmosphere for students to feel more comfortable and confident in their development and process

of education.

3.5 Opportunities for students given by assessment

For students, assessment also provides numerous chances in order for them to improve

and progress. THEAGC (2004)43

offers a list of these benefits

The first one says that assessment might lead learners to ask for feedback on their own

work so as to get a clearer picture of their weaknesses and strengths in a certain subject

matter. Consequently, they will realize whether they met the goals set by the teacher or

not. And, as a result, if they receive this feedback and take action afterwards, they will be

able to enhance their performance. It is necessary to bear in mind that improvement will

only take place if the assessment does not end when the test or presentation is over, but

when the feedback information is properly delivered.

43





34

The second one is also connected to the first advantage and it emphasizes the recognition

of the stronger and weaker areas of performance. So, if assessment procedures take place,

they can realize which aspects they need to improve before the instructor gives his/her

feedback to the student. That way, they will be capable to clearly and explicitly

contemplate the areas to be improved for a future evaluating procedure.

The third opportunity is that scholars are going to find the chance to somehow collect

information from previous assessment and try to visualize if they have accomplished

some kind of development in their learning process. They can even construct a portfolio

with all their attainments. This point is highly relevant since it considers how important it

is for students to see if they have made any progress along the road or not. If this does not

occur, they might not feel they have improved anyhow and can lead to frustration on their

behalf.

The fourth opportunity is related to the stage previous to the assessment task. For

example, the teacher setting the objectives is a significant step before assessing pupils.

Sometimes educators seem to reduce the importance of this prominent phase. If they do

openly show pupils the objectives to be considered as criteria for an evaluation, students

will be able to identify the goals that they need to accomplish for them to study and

practice accordingly. Consequently, they can reflect on their advancements and see if they

have actually learnt and met the instructor’s expectations.

Last but not least, THEAGC (2004)44

establishes that it is also important for students to

work collaboratively in order to accomplish higher and more challenging goals.

Furthermore, their relationship can also be enhanced. This means that scholars can

actually work with their peers in order to produce a better learning experience. They can

44





35

cooperate with each other and contribute to each other’s education process. They need to

be aware that sharing is a good opportunity to complement their knowledge but also that

they can establish a good rapport in the meantime.

As it was stated in the previous section and this one, one of the most relevant issues that

can be taken into advantage is the fact that through assessment, teachers and learners have a

chance to establish a healthy rapport. This is very beneficial for the teaching and learning process

and can have highly positive consequences in the atmosphere in which they are immersed. Better

results are going to be frequent if all the conditions are taken into account and if assessment is

provided adequately and in the right time, considering that this is an ongoing process and that it

does not finish when a mark is registered.

3.6 Advantages of Assessment

There is an enormous amount of advantages offered by assessment that teachers, students,

and other members of the educational community do not seem to realize. Owing to

misconception of the notion, limitations of the design, ignorance regarding the varied formats to

evaluate, and so on, educators do not see the process of assessment as an opportunity to take

advantage of.

Nonetheless, recent studies and research have shown that assessment can actually enhance

the student’s learning instead of just measuring it. According to Black (2004),45

assessment

exercises can support and promote learning if it is well done; if it provides information that will

be used in terms of feedback by the teacher, students when assessing themselves or each other are

to adapt and change teaching and learning activities in which all these subjects are taking part of.

In conclusion, if pupils and teachers take the information collected through the assessment

procedure and make important pedagogical decisions to produce improvement in the learning

afterwards, then, the assessment process is going to attain its objective and produce the effects

45 Black, P. (2004). Working inside the black box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom. Phi Delta Kappan 86,

no 1 (2004): 8 – 21. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://web.uvic.ca/~gtreloar/Assessment/Periodical%20Items/Working%20Inside%20the%20Black%20Box

-Assessment%20for%20Learning%20in%20the%20Classroom.pdf

36

that this is intended to. If, on the contrary, this is not the case and no actions are taken later, then,

simply, there was no point at all for the evaluation to take place anyhow.

Accordingly, assessment for learning is a process in which evidence about a student is

gathered, and that information is registered thanks to different approaches that will be consistent

proof for both, teacher and scholar, to judge: where the learner is in his or her learning, where the

learner needs to go, and how best to get there.

Thus, William (2007)46

has proposed these three last processes, and has added further

information well worth considering:

Figure 2:

Where the learner is

going

Where the learner is

right now

How to get there

Teacher

Peer

Learner

Clarifying and sharing

learning intentions and criteria for success

Understanding and

sharing learning

intentions and criteria for success

Understanding learning

intentions and criteria for success

Engineering effective

classroom

discussions,

questions, activities,

and tasks that elicit evidence of learning

Providing feedback

that moves learners forward

Activating students as instructional resources

for one another

Activating students as the owners of their

own learning

46Wiliam, D. (2007). What does research say the benefits of formative assessment are? The National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics. www.nctm.org Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Research_News_and_Advocacy/Research/Clips_and_Briefs/Research_

brief_05_-_Formative_Assessment.pdf

37

Although, all the strategies mentioned require radical changes in routines. However,

experience, empirical studies, as well as other kinds of research have suggested that the

investment of energy and effort is well rewarded and has, undoubtedly, meaningful consequences

in the atmosphere of the classroom as well as in the whole process of teaching and learning:

“Students are more engaged in class, achieve higher standards, and teachers find their work more

professionally fulfilling” (William, 2007).47

3.7 Drawbacks of Assessment

Among many disadvantages found within this procedure, some are directly connected

with teachers’ labor in terms of reliability, and impact. This might occur due to a series of factors

that influence the consequences that the assessment procedure is going to have on pupils.

For instance, students can show themselves unwilling to accept certain matters in relation

to assessment: they may feel inclined to think that teachers are unreliable, partial or even that the

standards applied are distorted. It could be the fact that teachers’ assessments are considered

inferior in comparison to external tests and that their interpretation is not valid, especially when

learners aged 11 and over are involved (Assessment Systems for the Future, 2006).48

As students get older, they tend to be more critical and question everything that happens

within the system. Assessment is not the exception. However, educators ought to be clever and

use these instances to consider some of the suggestions offered to modify and enhance the

assessment instrument. Some of the recommendations might be helpful and lead to good and

suitable changes in the way the evaluation is carried out.

47

Wiliam, D. (2007). What does research say the benefits of formative assessment are? The National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics. www.nctm.org Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Research_News_and_Advocacy/Research/Clips_and_Briefs/Research_

brief_05_-_Formative_Assessment.pdf

48

Assessment Systems for the Future (2006).The role of teachers in the assessment of learning. Nuffield Foundation.

http:// www.assessment-reform-group.org. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/sites/default/files/files/The-role-of-teachers-in-the-assessment-of-

learning.pdf

38

Certainly, it is a fact that assessments might impact in a negative way on students as well.

It could be the case that it affects learner’s motivation especially in those whose grade level is not

high: “Many studies have shown that, contrary to expectation, frequent high stakes assessment

(where marks or grades are given) can lower the motivation to learn” (Harlen& Crick, 2003; cited

on The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, 2004).49

Using only written or summative

testing does not give an overall picture of the student’s strengths and weaknesses, and in that

scenario, learners with other type of skills such as oral or visual would be in disadvantage. As a

result, learners can come to think that they do not have the abilities required, decreasing their

motivation in a great way towards the lessons and teacher’s work. This is a great disadvantage of

assessment, nevertheless, the opportunities to provide not only a mark, but also a positive

comment of the student’s performance are available and the teacher needs to put this into

practice.

These assessments give rewards and punishments but do not measure all the competences

that students can perform not only in schools but outside as well. Today, many learners face

problems when expressing their knowledge while being tested. For instance, if a student presents

an advanced understanding on photosynthesis but shows difficulties with reading comprehension,

it may be the case that he/she fails the exam since the student does not comprehend how the

testing is worded and for the obvious reading comprehension disability. However, he/she can be

really good at exposing the process as it occurs outdoors. As a consequence, a poor scoring might

cause the instructors to make improper assumptions about the learners’ real situation and

knowledge and arrange incorrect strategies for remediation (Elsworth, 2013).50

49





50

Elsworth, D. (2013). Definition of Authentic Assessment & Why It Is Useful With Students With Special Needs.

Demand Media. March, 25 2013. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/definition-authentic-assessment-useful-students-special-needs-6725.html

39

4. Feedback

Within an educational context and from a general perspective, the concept of feedback is

understood as the act of communication between teacher and student that takes place after a

certain task.

Activities and performances are always assessed or evaluated; thus, feedback gathers an

enormous relevance so as to allow a positive progress of the student.

However, feedback is provided as part of an assessment process that uses explicated

criteria and professional judgment. Thus, it can lead to inevitable lack of clarity of assessment

standards and, consequently, to a potential ambiguity in the action of giving, receiving and when

interpreting feedback. It is in this scenario that feedback takes a negative connotation because of

the effects it generates, the student will never overcome his/her weaknesses and, in the worst

scenario it could be a reason to make him/her go backwards.

For that reason, and so many others that will be explained in further paragraphs, feedback

has a giant role in the process of education; it is not necessarily something that happens only after

a class is finished, but a progressive ‘orientation’ a teacher can do inside his/her classes.

The idea is to transform educative procedures from a hierarchical structure and limited

spaces of communication into transversal relationships where you can interchange information.

4.1 Definition

As a first step, it is extremely necessary to make a quick look on what it is believed about

feedback as a generic definition and in its practical matters. Throughout long periods of time, a

common practice when providing feedback has gained a connotation of an easy process which

consists, basically, on gathering information (based on teacher’s perceptions) about a specific

task and giving it back to student so as to let him/her know the results. Students are given sheets

with rigid criteria related to assessment or they are told what they did well and wrong. The only

main purpose of carrying out this action is to inform learners about their performance; in other

words, making comments on what they did, but not further suggestions to improve.

On the same line, and as a way of idealizing the concept, it is prudent to point out that

there must be a strong consistency between the expectations that belong to the goals stated and

40

the task requirements. Otherwise, the whole course of action would be useless and harmful for

both teacher and learners. In simple words, the process of feedback has to be composed by

criteria that match with the previously established goals.

Regarding the definition of the concept itself, more than one aspect will be taken into

account. Initially, the information treated has to be truly closed to accuracy in order to avoid later

misconceptions. The relevance of this last point is gigantic, since to give place to

misunderstandings would be a direct cause of the possible errors generated from the students’

perspectives. This, undoubtedly, is the negative feature that must not have space during the whole

process of giving feedback.

Feedback corresponds to a sort of instructional design which shapes a nature of power on

it as a tool for education. The concept is clear, but the connotation obtained by it, is the one

which provokes troubles. As any other conception, feedback will be useful, powerful and

essential as long as it is applied and understood beyond its basic principles.

Whenever feedback is used in a context related to education, it is automatically referred as

a crucial piece to improve not only knowledge, but also skill acquisition in any kind of student.

The enormous value hidden within these words is almost immeasurable.

It becomes a phenomenon that has the particularity of generating changes. Those changes

are required to structure the answer of the main questions made by teachers: what do we expect

from my students to learn? (In terms of knowledge) What do my students have to develop? (In

terms of skills).

Although changes are needed, the process itself must be precise and carefully carried out

by teachers as guiders. Changes can be positive or negative for students, and one of the roles that

the teacher plays is the one of tutor. Hence, he/she will trace the lines for students to be aware of

what they have to do in order to reach the goals previously stated by both parts.

Feedback, then, is a process transformed into an important tool for the teachers in the task

of improving students’ performances and later results. It could be a short or long-termed goal

based with plenty of factors constantly impacting on it.

41

In sum, feedback can be stated as a way of providing information to an individual, and the

material obtained should focus on the performance or behavior of the student. This evidence

helps to reduce the gap between the student’s current level and the desired expectations. This

process should help learners to improve in a specific activity acting as a motivator when it is

objectively given.

4.2 Principles

The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (2004),51

states that “it is worthwhile

reiterating the seven principles of good feedback practice that we have identified”52

. Those

principles go from feedback as a facilitator of self-assessment development to providing

information from the teachers.

The importance relies on the dynamic characteristic which should dominate the complete

process so as to obtain benefits at the end. The principles considered for the procedure to

accomplish its functions are the following:

o Feedback facilitates the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning; it

is not only a process in which the information goes passively from the teacher to

the student without further examination.

Feedback corresponds to a channel of communication (understanding

communication as a two- directions act). Then, it won’t be any longer an

opportunity only for the teacher to inform students about certain aspects, but a

‘give and receive’ space in which learners have the same relevance and

participation on it.

51





52

Ibid.

42

Assessment and/or evaluations must be clear and concise. In base of the indicators

that will take part in the process, teachers’ perspectives must relate positive and

negative aspects, giving as much detail as possible. Also, from the statement

‘every learner is different and performs in a particular way’, it would be necessary

to highlight the fact that feedback will be more effective if the teacher does it

personalized; standardized comments won’t include all students.

Finally, the student must have the possibility to socialize the information he/she is

receiving with the purpose of improving future performances and tasks’ results;

not only regarding the contents that they are expected to acquire, but the skills

they are expected to develop. Students’ progress is the main aim to be

accomplished and all the efforts have to be done as that specific point, as direct

target.

o Feedback encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning: there is more

than one option to give space to feedback; more than one format to integrate

different elements.

First, the question is: who participates in the process of feedback? Sometimes, it is

just a field understood as giving/receiving information from teacher to student.

Then, the participants are teacher and student. However, in occasions, peers’

viewpoints are essential to reach changes in positive matters. The difference relies

on the fact that the teacher has to pay attention to many students within large

classrooms, thus, it is impossible to catch every aspect from every student and

give a proper feedback at the end of sessions.

Consequently, the input coming from the peers should be analyzed during the

process as well. Independently of how accurate peers’ points of view are, the

importance lays on details the teacher could have missed. That is the contribution

of peers. Accordingly, to draw the whole picture, every element must be taken into

account and after, they will be ordered so as to work with them to obtain a result

which truly represents the corresponding reality.

o Feedback helps to make clarifications of what is seen or understood as a ‘good

performance’ (considering goals, criteria and expected standards). The length of

43

feedback must be related to quality; the teacher is called to do a meticulous work

with it.

As any process, feedback can be separated into rigid stages in order to include all

the relevant aspects that compose it. The correct articulation of those aspects or

‘stages’ will trace the basic lines in which the further results can be built.

Firstly, the goals should be clearly stated following the initial question of ‘what is

it intended to do?’, giving the emphasis on the goals that will be accomplished at

the end. Immediately after, the criteria with appropriate indicators must be built so

as to make them match with the previously designed set of goals. This is the vital

step to lead the procedure to positive effects.

The success or failure of the whole process of feedback will be marked by the

relationship between what the goal to reach is, and how it is accomplished.

All in all, a misconception of this relation will mean an imminent failure; and on

the contrary, a deep understanding of it will lead the process to a total success.

o Feedback provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired

performance. Sometimes, this step may seem as the most difficult one. What it is

and what it is expected to be. Again, consistency inside the elements of feedback

is required.

There is a difference between the concepts of ‘reality’ and ‘ideal’. On one side,

reality has to be detected to shape it closer to what has been established as ideal.

On the other side, idealizing too much could be dangerous to the correct progress

of the students; therefore, the teacher needs to manage these concepts always to

benefit both parts.

Then, the criteria will be the most powerful tool to orientate students about what is

to be expected from them and how they can correlate the data with the teacher’s

perspective. However, it is extremely important to clear up that perfection is not

the ‘north’.

Having this in mind, the teacher should highlight the fact that everybody has

different skills and better performances/work in specific areas in terms of

capacities. That is perfectly good and students will let go some unnecessary

pressure which plays an obstacle in the teaching procedure.

44

o Feedback delivers high quality information to students about their learning by

means of ‘judging’ their performances. To judge has to take a positive connotation

to be effective. In the case of ‘high quality information’, it refers to the

involvement and articulation of three main aspects to be considered throughout the

process: clearness, accuracy and consistency.

a. Clearness. It corresponds to a precise report of what the student did, including

all the positive and negative parts without discrimination. It is the space to

inform and socialize with the students about teacher’s perception on their

performances, pointing out the general ideas and the details.

b. Accuracy. The comments made by the teacher are the first step of feedback.

Therefore, they must show a strong connection with the established indicators.

Otherwise, it would be an incoherent exercise with non-effective features.

c. Consistency. It is important to take it as the base for the relationship that will

exist between the indicators that compose the criteria in which the teacher will

make his/her judgment, and the information provided to the student about it.

o Feedback encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem. This is,

probably, the principle which needs more attention than the others.

As it was cleared up before, feedback has to become a process that generates

results and stop being only an information interchange or a teacher’s monologue.

Then, comments will be directed to student with honesty as a basic principle of

effectiveness. Positive and negative aspects will be named and explained in detail;

however, the teacher’s role is to put emphasis on the positive as a base to work

and overcome negative features. Although, the negative aspects should be

accompanied by suitable suggestions or recommendations for the student to

improve.

Students’ self-esteem is dangerously fragile and that is why it is necessary to

remind teachers that people in general will always tend to focus their attention on

what is ‘bad’. Whenever you say to someone that there is a negative side in his/her

performance, it could be taken in the wrong way provoking undesirable behavior;

45

even though the techniques to carry out this action is the correct one, there will

always be a risk in people’s reaction because of an imminent and non-stoppable

feeling or perception of frustration. As a result, the concept of motivation is the

crucial factor to lead the process to a complete success; that is the reason why it

must be reinforced as much as possible by the teachers in every possible occasion.

Once you make your student feel comfortable and safe, motivation and self-

esteem will become feedback’s best allies.

o Feedback provides information to teachers which can help to shape the teaching.

Last but not least, the process of teaching has to be enriched by the process of

feedback.

The conclusions done by the tutors are to be another way to improve teaching from the

basis of recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of the tasks, as well as objectives and main

goals.

The students’ results will be the hints for teachers to constantly adjust their methods and

techniques to the learners’ needs. It is not only a matter of designing the ‘right’ tasks, but to use

proper forms of assessment and evaluation depending on the student’s profile.

In the following graphic, the role of feedback within the learning process is shown as well

as how it is used by the instructor and the student:

46

Figure 3:

(Source: Growing Success, 2010)

The process is repetitive and finds its basis on assessment, delivering proper evidence and

material to the teacher and student through feedback, so each actor can grasp the information,

reflect on it, and take appropriate actions to support learning. A key role within this model is

played by the assessment which is expected to be regular and, at the same time to be linked to

instruction as the learning experience takes place.

Elements as the effectiveness of an activity (positive or negative results) are the essence

of the self-judgment teachers must be able to do. Carrying out this easy but important step, the

teacher will be capable of creating activities that apply to the context the students are immersed

in.

4.3 Aims

As a process that searches vast changes in students’ results, the aims of the whole

procedure have to be established from the beginning.

Instruction

Adjust

Instruction

Feedback

Assessment

(teacher, peer, self)

Adjust

LearningFocus

Teacher response Student response

47

According to The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (2004),53

“(…) feedback

from tutors and peers provides additional information that helps challenge students to reassess

their knowledge and beliefs”.54

This ‘additional’ pattern corresponds to those elements which

students cannot identify by their own, because attention may not be focused on everything.

Hence, the teacher and other classmates are able to provide details which play a vital role during

the generation of chances to make real changes.

Classmates are always in contact with each other and that will become an opportunity for

the teacher to gather as much information as possible to use it in a deeper feedback. Even when it

could be a sort of ‘informal’ procedure, it can be taken into account as reliable since it represents

the reality. Students must know they not only contribute with their own process of learning, but

with their equals as well. In other words, learners actively and constantly participate within the

development of their classmates’ process of learning; hence, they must be part of the latter

procedure that refers to feedback. It would be another responsibility to work on in order to

transform it into a skill to be developed.

Also, the feedback which comes from the teacher is a tool that serves as an external

authoritative reference point; students can evaluate their performance as well from the starting

point of someone else’s perspective. Additionally, learners are able to self-correct their progress

and their own internal goals. Therefore, it could be a way to make a positive ‘pressure’ over

students, since it will begin from their expectations and objectives.

Concentrating on the questions ‘what is it intended to be accomplished?’ and ‘what is the

proper way to reach the goals?’ there is an enormous importance laying on the fact that there are

aims more meaningful than others.

The main goal of formative feedback—leaving aside the fact that it could be delivered by

a teacher or computer, and takes place inside the classroom or in another place—is to enrich

53





54

Ibid.

48

learning and improve performances in learners, producing the formation of accurate

conceptualizations and skills. Such feedback may be used together with low- or medium-stakes

assessments, include diagnostic components, and even be personalized for the student.

Thus, it does not matter the place in which feedback takes place as long as the target is

clear and strong. In this case, the target corresponds to enhancing the learning process by means

of improving students’ performances. This improvement includes an integral development of

concepts and skills, although the importance does not rely on the specific moment in which

feedback will be carried out; it should be highlighted the fact that it is necessary to shape the

procedure as a progressive and constant process along all the lessons.

Another concept to deal with is the ‘formative’ one and its relationship with feedback.

Basically, it means a continuous process within learners’ lives; feedback is not only a tool to be

used during evaluation and grading. It is a way teachers have to be guiding the moments in which

students develop their skills and acquire knowledge, basing everything in previously stated goals

and criteria.

Formative feedback has to be carried out during the whole process of teaching and not

only at the end of a certain task or at the last stage of the corresponding lessons, as something that

spontaneously occurs with the classes.

Feedback is the representation of what is communicated to the learner. However, the

concept has to be understood as a method established on the intention of impacting and

provoking modifications in the student’s thinking, behavior and skills, in a constant attempt to

improve the learning process and a latter success. The teacher will guide the ‘transformation’ of

the student.

Grading, evaluating and assessing are part of feedback, although they are not the points to

be focused on all the time. Other features that occur during the process are the ones that

correspond to the already explained ‘formative’ feedback as the crucial factor on this matter.

Finally, and adding another important feature of what formative feedback has become, it

is important to say that the concept has a direct and significant essence of factor. It draws the

lines of motivation inside the classroom.

49

4.4 Functions

After establishing the aims, functions have to be stated as well. From Black and Wiliam

(mentioned in “Enhancing student learning through effective formative feedback” by THEAGC,

2004)55

perceptions, “there are two main functions of feedback: directive and facilitative.

Directive feedback tells the student what needs to be fixed or revised. Such feedback tends to be

more specific than facilitative feedback, which provides comments and suggestions to help guide

students in their own revision and conceptualization.”56

Directive feedback: it corresponds to the information that is shared by the teacher to the

student about his/her performance. It is supposed to point out the strengths and

weaknesses of the learner so as to make him/her know what is expected to be improved in

future presentations. Also, the purpose looked for this tool, is to prepare students to

elevate somehow their expectations in which the improvement would be implicit.

Facilitative feedback: this function is undoubtedly more relevant than the previous one.

The ‘facilitative’ factor belongs to the fact that once the information is given, the teacher

has to lead students to self-assess with the purpose of identifying what is positive and

negative about their own performance.

4.5 Types of Feedback

There are plenty of possible classifications of feedback regarding its types, however, the

ones to be taken into consideration in a first stage will be: self-feedback, group feedback and peer

feedback.

55





56

Ibid.

50

Self-feedback: the student identifies his/her weaknesses and strengths by his/her own so

as to make a positive progress of performance.

Group feedback: every member of a group (from a whole class or just of a group work)

will contribute with information, comments and suggestions to others.

Peer feedback: a person who works with others and later is able to provide perceptions of

performance in terms of how it was and how it could be better.

On a parallel classification, formative and evaluative feedbacks take more importance,

because of their direct impact in the process.

4.5.1 Formative Feedback

Shute (2007)57

establishes that “The main aim of formative feedback is to increase student

knowledge, skills, and understanding in some content area or general skill (e.g., problem

solving), and there are multiple types of feedback that may be employed toward this end (e.g.,

response specific, goal directed, immediately delivered, and so on).”58

Hence, the quality of

formative feedback reaches the fact of attempting a continuous and progressive improvement in

the student’s performance.

According to Shute (2007),59

formative feedback is the information that has as a purpose

the modification of student’s thinking or behavior with the intention to improve learning. That

material could be aimed to the accuracy of a response to a problem or task and, in addition, may

be directed to particular errors or misconceptions. Furthermore, the same author adds that

formative feedback should allow the comparison between actual performance and the one that is

expected which is stated by some standard.

57

Shute, V. (2007).Focus on Formative Feedback. ETS, Princeton, NJ.Educational Testing Service. Retrieved on

September 2013; from: http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-07-11.pdf

58

Ibid.

59

Ibid.

51

If delivered correctly, meaning that if it is given on target, objective, focused and clear,

that good feedback can significantly improve learning processes and outcomes.

4.5.2 Evaluative Feedback

Evaluative feedback depends totally on an action taken. It is the one which involves a

value judgment and indicates how good the action is but not if it is the best or worst action

possible. Therefore, it has relation with giving grades to students on their performances. The fact

is that, the effect of grading student performance will have less effect than feedback comments,

because students are led to begin making comparisons with one another and that will impact their

egos. The drawback of this is the following: focus is no longer on the difficulties presented by the

task or in making efforts to improve. In conclusion, grades that are pointed out as feedback have

disastrous effects on students’ self-esteem. Grading is not negative, but sometimes it could be

useless in terms of feedback due to the implications of learners’ affective components limiting

their perceptions get closer to a positive effect.

In simpler words, evaluative feedback has to deal with how well a student has performed

on a particular task including judgments by the teacher based on implicit or explicit norms. This

feedback is often evidenced in the form of letter grades, numbers, check marks, symbols (gold

stars) and/or general comments such as ‘you’ve done well’, ‘excellent’, or ‘needs help’.

As a result, if emphasis is put on evaluative feedback, it may affect how students feel

about themselves and the lesson. It can make good learners feel better and the less able students

feel even worse.

4.6 Opportunities of Feedback for Teachers

Clearly, teachers and students are relevant during the process of feedback. In the

particular case of teachers, the practice of feedback led in good terms can be a bridge to make

vast transformations within the classroom environments.

It is not a matter of only information provision; it is about teaching and learning at the

same time and for both sides. Tutors are in charge of assessing, but they have the possibility of

learning as well by means of this process.

52

4.7 Opportunities of Feedback for Students

The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (2004)60

states that “Feedback on

performance, in class or on assignments, enables students to restructure their understanding/skills

and build more powerful ideas and capabilities”.61

The first priority of feedback belongs to the

students, and even when teachers have opportunities to enrich their experience with feedback, the

aims will be always focused on the learners’ part.

Learners receive feedback in ‘information format’ and it will depend on each individual

how to use that in getting a positive result for him/her.

Another idea taken from the same source is that “External feedback provides an

opportunity to close the gap in the learning process between the current learning achievements of

the student and the goals set by the teacher”.62

The performances in general have to be more and

more adjusted to the indicators and their functions. What the student does in classes has to be

related to what the teacher is requiring from him/her.

4.8 Teachers’ Role

From Yorke (2003; mentioned in “Enhancing student learning through effective formative

feedback” by THEAGC, 2004)63

perspective, “as well as focusing on the quality of the feedback

messages, teachers should focus their efforts on strengthening the skills of self-assessment in

their students”.64

The teacher is in charge of leading the process, but it does not mean he/she has

to take the main role of it. In fact, it is a sort of opposite viewpoint where the tutor has to do all

his/her effort to accomplish one important goal: the student has to be aware of every aspect

60





61Ibid.

62Ibid.

63Ibid.

64Ibid.

53

(positive or negative) of his/her performance so as to improve weaknesses and reinforce

strengths. That is the first point to consider.

Secondly, teachers must pay attention to the tools or instruments they will use to deliver

feedback in order to adequate them to the previously established goals and task requirements.

Otherwise, the lack of accuracy and consistency will be transformed into an inevitable failure for

both, teacher and student.

Summarizing, the teacher’s role in the process of feedback is translated to: being a guide

not an instructor and being a generator of dialogues where students can socialize comments and

suggestions for further improvement.

4.9 Students’ Role

First of all, it is essential to highlight the fact that teachers are in charge of transmitting

feedback messages to their students including all the strengths and weaknesses detected,

assuming the effects that those comments and suggestions will have on them.

The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (2004)65

states that “(…) Students are

assumed to construct actively their own understanding of feedback messages from tutors.

Moreover, these messages are assumed to be complex and difficult to decipher.”66

Regarding this

asseveration, it is easily concluded that learners know they have to use the information received

somehow for their own benefit, however the contents of the messages become an obstacle to the

proper interpretation of them.

The information gathered by feedback is powerful and precise; thus, it is important to use

it as a base to act, otherwise it could give space to an interpretation of missed opportunity.

65





66

Ibid.

54

In conclusion, the role of the student “(…) is assumed to occupy a central and active role

in all feedback processes. They are always actively involved in monitoring and regulating their

own performance both in terms of their goals and in terms of the strategies being used to reach

those goals.”67

This is the strong idea of what the ideal student involved in the process of

feedback would be.

The student’s role in the process of feedback corresponds to: being an active participant of

the process, giving and receiving information to improve.

Hand in hand, the teacher’s and student’s roles have the same relevance. The teacher has

to be someone who guides, not the only protagonist of the process. The student has to be more

and more aware of his/her learning process and take actions to make progress in every aspect.

4.10 Effective Feedback

Concerning the design of feedback and its delivery, Yorke (2003; mentioned by

THEAGC, 2004)68

has established that two questions should be answered positively in order to

evaluate if the feedback has been effectively elaborated and conveyed. The first question is “is

the feedback of the best quality and second, does it lead to changes in student behavior?”69

More particularly, the first query is related to quality of the feedback. However, it does

not specify the features that involve quality feedback. Supposedly, there are certain

characteristics that feedback should contain in order for this one to be effective. As these features

are not explicitly available, they will be outlined later under the theory of another author.

On the other hand, the second interrogation refers to if this information provided will have

any consequences as to the changes of behavior amongst pupils. In other words, Yorke (2003,

67





68Ibid.

69Ibid.

55

mentioned by THEACG, 2004)70

wants to convey that the ultimate purpose of feedback is to

encourage students to modify certain aspects that need to be improved. The idea is that feedback

gives sufficient data in relation to these areas for them to enhance their performance. If this is not

accomplished, feedback will become useless and senseless.

Nonetheless, another perception of Yorke is that there is not much consideration and

concern over the issue of feedback. As a consequence, it seems to be very complicated for

experts in the field to measure the effectiveness of feedback and its probable effects on the

students’ progress. It is because of this, that there is so little information in regard to the aspects

of an effective feedback and how it should be delivered. The reduced information found is also

debatable and not very definite or conclusive. This is the reason why, educators do not tend to

give much importance to this relevant aspect of teaching.

In addition, and supporting the previously stated ideas, a feedback that is effectively

elaborated and delivered, should lead to increase the performance of scholars in latter assessment

procedures. This is why, in the process of designing it, the instructors ought to consider how

students analyze this feedback so as to take action afterwards. In simpler words, educators must

bear in mind the way his/her pupils think and study the feedback provided for them to be able to

understand the message without trouble and react in a suitable manner. If the information given is

not conclusive or clear, they will get confused and probably they are not going to be able to

produce the behavioral changes expected.

For instance, there are ways in which teachers can improve the effectiveness of feedback

and “one way of increasing the effectiveness of external feedback and the likelihood that the

information provided is understood, is to conceptualize feedback more as a dialogue rather than

as a plain transmission of information. This means orally or in a written way. The final objective

of this purpose is that there is no gap for misunderstandings and students get a clearer picture for

them to pay more attention to the specific aspects in which they have to improve. As well as

70





56

described in the assessment sections, this dialogue can lead to positive consequences for the

relationship sustained between the teacher and his/her pupils. Thus, if the educator delivers

feedback in a proper form, the students are most likely going to be opened to the criticisms as

they will produce a good effect on their performance. Consequently, they will feel backed up and

understood and that is going to affect in a positive way their relationship at the end.

However, there are other experts and researchers who believe that effective feedback

should avoid the use of encouraging remarks or positive observations and, instead use the

contrastive form in order to prevent students from getting confused. For instance, teachers should

omit comments that are positive and focus on the negative and weakest points of the assignment

in which the student worked. In this way, he/she will be able to know exactly what they have to

improve in their weakest areas of performance, and that their stronger aspects should be kept in

the same way.

Furthermore, quality information given by the teacher through the feedback can be

defined as effective when the learners find the opportunity to “close the gap between intent and

effect”71

(THEAGC, 2004). In other words, if learners think that they have been doing a great job

when the effect of that work is not good, teachers should pay attention to those areas and

explicitly tell students why this occurs and how they must act in order to prevent these errors to

keep on appearing. This is due to the fact that sometimes pupils may believe they have been

behaving in the right way or performing as they ought to; nonetheless, if teachers realize it and do

not do anything for his/her students to change or modify that behavior, rarely they can expect to

obtain improvement somehow.

71





57

Additionally, Shute (2007)72

also mentions the concept of ‘formative feedback’. In this

sense, there are certain characteristics that feature feedback in order for this one to be effective.

Here there is the list offered with an explanation of all the points provided:

Multidimensional: This aspect is relevant because it focuses on the idea that feedback has

many ways to be delivered. One of them is through the dialogue and in written, as well.

These two formats have proved to be more effective rather than putting an isolated mark,

because the words (oral or in written) somehow stick on learners’ minds. Effectiveness

also deals with the fact that students really analyze and examine their behavior and seek

how to change it. Another point of view to consider this aspect is through ‘varied

perspectives’. If there are more dimensions, the pupils receive more viewpoints and this

makes the feedback become even more authentic and objective. Consequently, scholars

will be more opened to welcome feedback and try to enhance their weaknesses.

Nonevaluative: This point refers to the idea that in order to give feedback, teachers should

not grade students. This can have really negative effects and play against the current

pupils’ performance. Nonetheless, for all educators around the globe, it is very

complicated to think of another possibility to measure students’ levels of performance.

For example, it is considered in Chile that from the mark 3.9, a student has failed a test.

On the other hand, if he/she obtains over 4.0, they have passed a subject. In other words,

if there are no numbers to grade students, how will they and the teachers be able to

visualize the accomplishment of them or the class? It seems difficult to do it. However, if

instructors consider registering a mark along with writing some comments on the

student’s performance, this can ultimately have better effects than only setting a number

on the top corner of a test.

Supportive: Learners must be supported and backed up by their educators all the time.

There is nothing more comfortable than a positive comment given by a teacher. That is

why, when giving feedback, teachers should also rescue the brighter aspects of a task and

mention them for the learners to feel encouraged and motivated to keep on working and

72


September, 2013; from: http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/RR-07-11.pdf

58

enhancing their development. This does not mean that they only have to emphasize those

areas, but that they could show somehow that they noticed their pupils are performing

well in certain criteria.

Learner-controlled: This characteristic might be understood in varied ways. One of them

is that the feedback given needs to be clearly decoded and comprehended by the students.

In other words, the feedback ought to be ‘under the control of the learner’. Effectively-

provided feedback should lead to action and posterior changes. If students are able to

manage the information received and react afterwards, they have been provided effective

feedback. If the feedback is not understood and students are unable to handle it, the

scholars hardly are going to produce any kind of change in their behavior or performance

in latter occasions.

Timely: Another important aspect of effective feedback is that this one is given and

received in a short period of time after the assignment is carried out. In some schools, the

instructors have a specific amount of time to deliver a mark. Otherwise, it is difficult for

students to recall the objectives of the task as well as how they did it, in which context,

under which circumstances, etc. So, in order to prevent confusion and forgetfulness and to

assure posterior progress, teachers must prepare and deliver feedback as soon as possible

after the pupils have done their work.

Specific: Undoubtedly, for learners to know and identify their strengths and weaknesses

they surely need to know very particularly what they have to improve. Consequently, the

educators are required to be very specific, careful and meticulous when it comes to correct

the mistakes made and let students know how to improve those aspects. Also, this

characteristic involves the amount of feedback delivered. This is because sometimes

teachers tend to give too much feedback that results are vague and students get confused

and overwhelmed. A list of detailed information, very precise and accurate is going to

result more efficient than a whole paragraph with vague notes.

Credible: Students should believe that they have been rightly corrected and that those

aspects were really their weakest ones. To avoid incredibility, teachers need to support

their comments with some excerpts from the students’ work and, consequently, students

will clearly see that the educator is right and that that particular area needs to be

59

improved. If this is not the case, maybe it is a good idea to mark certain parts of the

evaluation that had those mistakes in order to back up the information provided through

the feedback. Otherwise, students will not feel that those errors were actually committed

or that they do not need to improve that specific point.

Infrequent: Feedback is not going to result effective if students receive it too frequently.

This happens because they do not see much progress after one or two weeks they had

done an assignment and being given the feedback for that task. The idea is to give them

enough time for them to practice the contemplated errors and enhance their performance

in their weaker areas. If this does not occur, they will definitely get very frustrated

because they will not see that they have improved and this might bring several negative

effects in their learning process. In addition, it is important that in the meantime (between

two assessment procedures) much practice opportunities are given to students in order for

them to rehearse. Otherwise, even though the feedback is not provided frequently, they

will not get the chance to improve their mistakes.

Contingent: This concept deals with pertinence. It focuses on the notion that instructors

must not give feedback on something they have not assessed. It really makes sense and it

sounds obvious, but sometimes, teachers tend to evaluate aspects that were not considered

in the assessment criteria and students might complain justly. Besides, they will definitely

obtain a mark or grade that did not correspond to their actual performance since they were

not prepared to be evaluated in other aspects. This is going to have negative effects on the

student’s learning process because he/she will never get the right picture of where he/she

stands in the path of development.

Genuine: The last characteristic mentioned is the one that deals with genuineness. This is

important because it involves the authenticity and sincerity. Teachers must give feedback

that is not ‘copied’. This can also be associated to how personalized the feedback is. It is

not the same to receive specific, personal information regarding performance than to hear

comments about the whole class progress. It is not going to result effective. If the

feedback is delivered in a more personalized way, students will get more encouraged and

closer to fix their mistakes.

60

According to THEAGC (2004),73

educators who praise the effort of students as well as if

they put emphasis on learning outcomes will have better results afterwards. Instead, the ones that

pay more attention to ‘intelligence’ or ‘ability’ tend to be far less successful because students feel

the vagueness of their comments.

It is constructive and can have very highly positive consequences if learners realize that

their instructors also consider and are aware of their determination in their work and that they

have tried to accomplish a well done job. In other words, it is worth considering not only the final

product but the process through which students have gone in order to accomplish that product.

Sometimes taking into account the learners’ competences and how pupils react and act in

different situations is also of highly significance and leads teachers to get to know them a bit

more.

4.11 Non-effective Feedback

There are many features that characterize non-effective feedback. For example it has been

stated that educators and, in general, all members of the educational community tend to confuse

feedback with a “simple ‘transmission’ of perspectives” (THEAGC, 2004).74

Bearing this in

mind, it makes sense to believe it, because the majority of feedback deliverers tend to consider

this process as unpretentious and they do it only to respond to the requirements established by the

school. However, there is an extremely important procedure that takes place after the feedback is

provided and which is not taken into account.

Another kind of feedback that also results non-effective is the one in which the students

are compared to their classmates. This type of feedback tends to be demotivating and not

encouraging. Comparison itself amongst peers or relatives can have awful consequences in a

child and frustrate his/her progress and development in future experiences.

73





74

Ibid.

61

Students feel that they are not being considered as particular entities, only as members of

a numerous class. Besides, if feedback is given this way, learners do not realize which aspects

they have to improve, so they tend to get confused. Consequently, they have no specific clues on

how to close the gap between what they know and what they should know.

In addition, THEAGC (2004)75

also mentions that educators who provide feedback tend

to focus mostly on particular mistakes and diminish the importance of giving advice on the

performance itself. The product should be more important than the process in contrast to other

authors’ points of view. At the end, teachers get learners who cannot identify their weaknesses

and that are not aware of how to make use of the information to improve their performance. In

order to avoid this, the information given through feedback should motivate students and make a

balance between the positive and negative aspects of the students’ development and performance

per se. As a consequence, students will most likely take this data into action and do something to

produce changes in their behaviors and meet the improvements expected by the teacher.

More particularly, characteristics that distinguish non-effective feedback are related to the

time in which the information is delivered. Maybe the information is given too soon or too

delayed. Both of those possibilities result in a useless process afterwards. Students will present

little or no progress at all, since the complete procedure is being carried out incorrectly. It will

have dull consequences in the learners’ development.

Besides, when the feedback is not meaningful or significant, scholars do not see this

process as being too relevant to their learning, so they do not pay much attention to it. In the end,

they will not make all the possible efforts to pass the evaluation and teachers will not be able to

get a clear and real picture of the pupils’ progress.

Furthermore, if this data is not informative, the pupil will also be confused on what

aspects to enhance and, probably, will not do anything to progress in those areas. Finally, it

mentions that it could be also overwhelming in relation to the amount. Teachers ought to be

75





62

concise and realistic in relation to the students’ performance. They cannot expect learners to

improve in every aspect at once. Learning is an ongoing process and it must be considered as

such.

Additionally, non-effective feedback is also characterized by concentrating on aspects that

are not difficult to visualize. Teachers focus on spelling and grammatical structures and they do

not give much relevance to even more important areas, such as the analysis or the ability to

synthesis. These ones require more capacity of concentration and investigation. This might be

because evaluating these aspects is harder; nevertheless, they are definitely greater in the

academic performance and should be taken into account more frequently than other features.

In conclusion, feedback that is not provided as it should be could potentially have deep

negative consequences in the development of second language learners. If teachers are not aware

of the aspects involving non-effectively delivered feedback, they can produce adverse effects on

students. As a result, students will not meet the objectives in future opportunities.

4.12 Overcoming Obstacles

Feedback is considered an elaborated, informative and helpful source of information

specifically needed if the learner faces obstacles or performs incorrectly. Hence, one important

step to be followed is describing common errors and incorrect steps, because it is always

necessary to recognize misunderstandings and mistaken strategies that belong to described errors

(Shute, 2007).76

Consequently, adequate guidance is necessary if students face any obstacle by supplying

knowledge about how to proceed. Due to this is that a selection of tutoring components has been

designed on the basis of proper analyses and research (Shute, 2007);77

thus, obstacles can be

overcome by means of:

76



77Ibid.

63

Cues for retrieving facts, rules, events, etc.

Hints providing analogies or case-based examples

Hints on possible sources of information

Hints on successful cognitive strategies

Hints on successful meta-cognitive strategies

Hints on how to correct systematic errors

Explanations to systematic errors

Explanations to cognitive strategies

Explanations to meta-cognitive strategies

Demonstration of the solution by worked-out examples

Demonstration of the correct solution.

(Source: Shute, 2007)

By selecting and specifying the informative content of feedback using the cognitive-task

procedures and error analyses named above, students are not only in front of the possibility to

control the situation, but also to correct and overcome obstacles on their own. Some may only

“get information about the location or type of their errors, others need also strategic corrective

information”78

(Shute, 2007).

Amongst other difficulties, Nicol and Boyle79

(2003, cited on The Higher Education

Academy Generic Centre, 2004) mentioned that “unfortunately, with large class sizes it can be

difficult for the teacher to engage in dialogue with students. Nonetheless, even in these situations

there are ways in which teachers might increase feedback dialogue. For example, by reporting

feedback in class and structuring break out discussions of feedback or by using classroom

technologies that collate student responses in class and then feed the results back visually as a

78



79Nicol, D.J. and Boyle, J.T. (2003) Peer Instruction versus Class-wide Discussion in large classes: a comparison of

two interaction methods in the wired classroom. Studies in Higher Education 28 (4), 457–473. Retrieved on

September 2013; from: http://www.ph.utexas.edu/~ctalk/bulletin/glasgow1.pdf

64

histogram. This feedback can act as a trigger for teacher-managed discussion.”80

In relation with

this, it can be said that this point of discussion is totally relevant since continuing dialogue in the

relation teacher-student develops understanding of expectations and standards, and immediate

corrections as a response to difficulties.

Summing up, it is a fact that obstacles exist at the moment of providing feedback.

However, they are absolutely easy to overcome when the teacher has the proper tools and knows

exactly how to make use of them. The idea is that feedback is delivered no matter how negative

the circumstances are. As a result, educators will get involved, informed and updated learners in

regards to their own progression.

4.13 Effects of Feedback

Since feedback can come to be a constructive and objective appraisal of a student’s

performance, it is its value and nature that can be formative with the intention to modify students’

behavior. It can motivate learners to study and ask questions in areas where their knowledge is

deficient.

Feedback can have either “a positive or negative effect on motivational beliefs and on

self-esteem, and influences how students feel about themselves which, in turn, affects what and

how they learn” (The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, 2004).81

This quote reveals

that feedback has considerable consequences for the self-esteem as well as for the process of

learning. This is why, it is important to evaluate the way this feedback will be designed and

delivered so as to only positively influence the learners’ development.

80





81Ibid.

65

On one hand, if feedback is delivered correctly, it can improve significantly learning

processes and outcomes, and it is in this area where elaborative feedback, which includes

explanatory information within a feedback message, can play a key role in students’ acquisition.

Yet on the other, research shows that increasing the amount of feedback information has no effect

on learning or performance (Shute, 2007).82

4.13.1 When feedback is effective

It is expected that an effective feedback must show the ‘right’ behaviors and let people

know what changes are desired, and it is also expected to be given in a respectful way so as to

help other subjects to succeed in those expectations. What is more, when it is really helpful,

feedback fosters curiosity and learners may feel encouraged to attempt new patterns and

behaviors. This is why feedback is so important: it can model learner’s styles; if teachers take

advantage of this potent too, then instructors can grab, make use of and reinforce those positive

aspects (Claros Group, 2007).83

According to Morgan (2006, cited on Focus on Formative Feedback by Valerie Shute,

2007),84

feedback is effective and useful when it depends on: (a) motive (what the students

needs), (b) opportunity (the student receives it in time to use it), and (c) means (the student is able

and willing to use the feedback). When all of those factors are taken into account when providing

feedback, it is more probable that the student is going to take advantage of the information

received and take action so as to improve the weaker areas of performance.

However, this process has to be reciprocal, meaning that in order to achieve its purpose

effective feedback must be understood, appraised and internalized by students (The Higher

82



83 Claros Group (2007). Giving effective feedback.Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.clarosgroup.com/feedback.pdf

84Shute, V. (2007).Focus on Formative Feedback. ETS, Princeton, NJ.Educational Testing Service. Retrieved on


66

Education Academy Generic Centre, 2004).85

It is simpler to say that this process is not ‘one-

direction’, because, for the main objective to be accomplished, there needs to be an important

series of steps carried out by the scholar.

In general, the impact of the assessment has positive effects on achievement and on

motivation. According to Narciss&Huth’s perspective (2004),86

effective feedback needs to take

into consideration the instructional context, the characteristics of the learner and the suitable

feedback for learning tasks. This is more graphically explained in the following figure:

Figure 4:

Based on Shute’s research (2007),87

each area and its elements are detailed as:

85





86Narciss, S. &Huth, K. (2004).How to design informative tutoring feedback for multi-media learning.Psychology of

Learning and Instruction. Dresden, Germany. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.studierplatz2000.tu-dresden.de/toolkit/presentations/CD/Literatur/Publikationen/ID_nahu.pdf



Tasks

Objectives

Errors

Prior KSA

Objectives Motivation

Instruction Learner

Function

Content Presentation

Feedback

67

Feedback. This part consists of 3 main aspects: the content of the feedback (for instance,

analogies, explanations or examples); the function of feedback (cognitive, metacognitive

and motivational); and the presentation of the feedback (timing or adaptivity).

Instruction. This area encloses three more parts, such as: the objectives (learning and

standard goals set by some curriculum), learning tasks (knowledge items, cognitive

operations and metacognitive skills), and obstacles (typical errors or incorrect strategies).

Learner. Individual students’ circumstances include: goals and objectives; prior

knowledge, skills and abilities; and academic motivation (need for achievement and self-

efficiency).

This author (Shute, 2007)88

challenges that adapting the content, functions and the

presentation of the feedback message must be stimulated by considerations on instructional goals

and students’ features in order to take advantage of feedback at its maximum potential.

Bearing in mind the previous point and amongst these particular patterns, achieving an

effective feedback includes “selecting and specifying learning objectives, identifying learning

tasks, matching to learning outcomes, and after conducting cognitive task and error analyses,

specifying information”89

,thus effective feedback concentrates on precise obstacles (Shute,

2007).90

This emphasizes each stage of the feedback and gives noticeable importance to the

objectives and learning outcomes set.

88



89Ibid.

90Ibid.

68

In sum, many aspects can be listed taking into account consistent documents produced by

James Cook University (2012)91

& Claros Group’ view (2007),92

and they can be an adequate tool

to construct a sort of a summary of the principal characteristics to be considered when to give

effective feedback is required. It must:

Be expected by the students (students are aware they have done a task for which

they will receive feedback)

Be based on clear expectations and agreements (learning objectives, standards and

criteria set according to the reality)

Describe specific behaviors rather than generalizations (meaning a more

personalized kind of feedback)

Be based on decisions and actions instead of assumptions or interpretations

(specifically stating mistakes and how to improve rather than inferring the real

meaning of the intention)

Be focused on attitudes to be changed, and that are at subject’s reality (which is

actually the ultimate purpose of feedback: changes in behavior of the pupil)

Contain neutral language (objective, genuine and realistic, easy to understand and

straightforward)

Be given as soon as possible (still fresh in students’ memory), yet not in the peak

of the moment

Be given appropriately (respect), and the right place (setting, context and

circumstances are the appropriate ones)

Be pertinent with students’ understanding (consistent with the level of

comprehension of students)

Expose a range of different options and not just one (being varied as to the

alternatives offered on how to improve the weaknesses)

91

James Cook University (2012).Strategies for Effective Feedback.Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/feedback/JCU_090547.html

92 Claros Group (2007). Giving effective feedback.Retrieved on September 2013; from:


69

Express appreciation, encourage reinforcement and a change in behavior (stating

what aspects were good and need to be maintained as well as what requires to be

enhanced)

Be given with a truly honest and positive attitude to support other people to

succeed (being genuine and sincere, but not biased, is going to be helpful and

make the feedback more believable as well as encouraging)

Be regular (being consistent enough, but not too frequent, is going to collaborate

to the change of the behavior since the scholars are going to bear in mind the

improvement all the time)

Be started and ended with positive comments (being encouraging and enthusiastic

about the student’s performance is always going to bring good results)

Be received and understood by students (being simple and straightforward as well

as to ask for understanding produces the desire effects)

Be registered and followed up in the future (having a register is going to allow

students and teachers locate their progression through the time, which is very

inspiring).

4.13.2 When feedback is non-effective

When feedback is focused on students’ innate qualities and abilities instead of behaviors

and processes displayed, it is likely to fail. Recent research (Dweck, 2008 & Hattie and

Timperley, 2007; both mentioned in ‘Effective Feedback’ by Williamson and Schell, 2013)93

has

shown that centering feedback on the learner(“You are really smart”) was notoriously ineffective,

while information directed towards the task or how it was developed (“I see how hard you

worked on this problem”) produced favorable outcomes and promoted learning.

What is more, if feedback is focused on the product and outcome rather than on the

strategies, effort, perseverance and improvement spent by students, it will be totally fruitless,

93

Williamson, Z. & Schell, J. (2013).Effective Feedback.Center for Teaching Learning.The University of Texas at

Austin. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://static.squarespace.com/static/50be2fcde4b088f556b76c71/t/5237c3ace4b0a71f5f0f7ceb/13793862846

58/Feedback.pdf

http://static.squarespace.com/static/50be2fcde4b088f556b76c71/t/5237c3ace4b0a71f5f0f7ceb/1379386284658/Feedback.pdf


70

generating an unwanted attitude towards learning (Williamson and Schell, 2013).94

This is the

reason why sometimes students get demotivated, because they see that all their effort has been

pointless.

According to The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre (2004),95

there is enough

research and “a great deal of evidence that students do not understand the feedback given by

tutors (for instance, ‘this report is not logically structured’) and are therefore not able to take

action to close the gap.”96

As a consequence, this poor quality feedback can make students feel as if they have been

personally judged on subjective matters, or that their thoughts, opinions and ideas are being

ignored or slighted. This can lead to defensiveness or reactivity. It is logical that students

sometimes do not understand what the teacher wanted to mean. However, it is not the

responsibility of the child, but the teacher’s responsibility to be legible and easily comprehended.

Taking into account the previous perspective, some students are critical about the

feedback they receive, reporting problems of illegible writing or a negative tone of feedback,

resulting in what they recognize as a vague and ambiguous feedback (Price et al, 2010).97

94

Williamson, Z. & Schell, J. (2013).Effective Feedback.Center for Teaching Learning.The University of Texas at

Austin. Retrieved on September, 2013; from:

http://static.squarespace.com/static/50be2fcde4b088f556b76c71/t/5237c3ace4b0a71f5f0f7ceb/13793862846

58/Feedback.pdf

95The Higher Education Academy Generic Centre, (2004).Enhancing student learning through effective formative




96Ibid.

97Price, M.; Handley, K.; Millar, J. & O’Donovan, B. (2010).Feedback: all that effort, but what is the effect? Oxford

Brookes University, Wheatley Campus, Oxford OX33 1HX, UK. Retrieved on September 2013; from:

http://www.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/1888530/Price.pdf



71

Another disadvantage that can diminish the power of feedback is the over-emphasis of

teacher assessment. If students are deeply dependent on teacher’s tutoring, it may increase their

dependency rather than enhance their ability to act autonomously to self-assess and self-correct.

In that way, both teacher and student would be ignoring the active role that must be played when

constructing meaning from feedback messages (THEAGC, 2004).98

4.14 Post-feedback process

It is important to mention that no matter teachers’ efforts and how careful and well

prepared the instructors are, it is a fact that students will react differently to any type of

comments. It does not matter how skilled teachers can be when delivering feedback, learners may

respond in a variety of ways and sometimes these could not always be positive. Thus, students

could:

Dare to challenge feedback comments (believing they are not correct or credible)

Become upset, angry or even emotional (reflecting on the possibility of having a

biased teacher, or taking it more personal than it should be)

Walk out of the interview (becoming too upset and intolerant to hear anything to

do about his/her performance)

Look for a different opinion from the same class or group (wanting to obtain a

more objective perspective about any assignment); and

Complain beyond the classroom making a family member to discuss the feedback

given (questioning the validity and reliability of the feedback delivered by the

instructor).

(James Cook University, 2012)99

98





99James Cook University (2012).Overcoming the challenges of giving feedback. Retrieved on September, 2013;

from: http://www.jcu.edu.au/wiledpack/modules/feedback/JCU_090545.html

72

Even this last source indicates a considerable number of useful advices that can be put

into practice when dealing with the probable scenarios mentioned above. It is in this field that

teachers could:

Ask colleagues for support (more experienced teachers can be really helpful

towards newer colleagues)

Practice own communicative skills (abilities to convey a message can be practiced

so as to be clear and straightforward)

Allow time for students to calm down (being able to leave pupils time to settle and

tranquilize if they get too upset)

Address unprofessional behaviors (when witnessing these kinds of situations,

report right away)

Check strategies used when giving feedback (register which ones were more

successful)

Continue providing feedback (be regular in the delivering of feedback, so students

will get used to receiving it)

Contact UTP coordinator (to obtain help regarding domestic matters and

extraordinary issues);

Refer the student or parents to UTP coordinator (when it seems to be necessary,

make the connections amongst them).

Having these facts considered, it can be stated that feedback as dialogue means that the

student not only receives information from the beginning of their performance, but also he/she

has the opportunity to engage the teacher in discussion about that feedback. It is in these

dialogues and interactions where he/she can take advantages of teacher’s tutoring support. On

behalf of students, instructors can help learners to develop and realize about their expectations

and what they are supposed to do, as well as to improve, correct misunderstandings and obtain an

immediate response when problems arise (THEAGC, 2004).100

100



73

As evidenced throughout, it is proven that feedback efficiently improves not only

students’ interest in learning and performance, but enhances teachers’ teaching up to the extent

that “feedback is on target objective, focused and clear”101

(THEAGC, 2004; Shute, 2007).102



101







74

II. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

75

1. Paradigm of the Investigation

The study to be carried out will focus on the action-research paradigm, having elements

that will distinguish it from other kinds of investigation, due to the fact that an investigator can

create or construct his/her own type of study by combining different aspects such as exploratory,

predictive and confirmatory to accomplish action research to execute a study using this

investigative approach. Hence, the following section will convey the thorough design of the study

by using an eclectic methodological strategy to do the analysis and inquiry so as to prove how

important written feedback is when teaching a second language in subsidized and public schools.

1.1 Type of Study

As it was aforementioned Action – Research is currently one of the methods that is mostly

implemented by teachers and by every member that takes part of the educational community.

According to Miller (2007),103

“action research is a natural part of teaching”.104

Moreover, during

the process of action research the educators must be in a continuous observation of the behavior

of the pupils. This course of action (the process of observing) is carried out so as to gather

information about any important issue to consider in the teaching and learning procedure.

Furthermore and while doing investigation, teaching strategies, methodologies and techniques are

frequently modified in order to provide knowledge in learners. The inquiry to be applied is

inclined to solve the pedagogical conflicts that could potentially harm the learning process, so as

to improve the performance of students inside the environment and /or setting that surrounds

them for them to feel more welcomed and comfortable in their educational setting.

Miller (2007)105

refers to this type of research as a source of investigation that is intended

to offer a guideline for teachers to follow the comprehension of how pupils can turn out to be

improved apprentices. This demonstrates the essence of providing an education that is more

103

Miller, A. C. (2007). Action Research: Making Sense of Data. On-line article recovered 11/05/2007. Retrieved on

September 2013; from:

http://www.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Lessons_and_Resources/Grants_and_Awards/How%20is%20Action%2

0Research%20Defined(1).pdf

104Ibid.

105Ibid.

76

student-centered due to the fact that all the pedagogical strategies are activated in order to

enhance the scholars’ abilities to learn.

Another perspective on action research is given by McFarland and Moore (2003).106

They

state that there are internal and external factors or trends that will impact the institution.

Following that notion, it can be inferred that what happens in the students’ community can

influence the education, affecting positively or negatively on it. Those are the so-called “driving

forces”, that is, strengths combined in one word from which five other terms are derived. In the

following acrostic, the ‘steep’ nature is explained.

S Social

T Technological

E Environmental

E Economic

P Political

From the previous scheme, several conclusions could be drawn:

1. SOCIAL: There are social factors that will influence the process of learning.

These ones deal with the context students are submerged in. More particularly,

these refer to the family issues and background. For instance, it can be assumed

that more stability in the social aspect will influence positively in the learning

process of pupils. This is due to the fact that family members are likely to

encourage students as well as serve as a supporter for this complex experience.

Besides, social relationships established inside the school are noticeably an

106McFarland, D. & Moore, J. (2003).Stakeholders Conference on Strategic Planning.Arkansas State University.

Retrieved on October 2013; from

http://asunews.astate.edu/Oct%2020%202003%20Stakeholders%20Conf.htm

77

important aspect to take into account when observing the academic performance of

a student. It has been proved that better rapport and social interaction can

positively influence the learning process of a pupil.

2. TECHNOLOGICAL: Currently, technology plays a huge and relevant role in the

societies and, even more specifically, amongst kids and teenagers. This is the

reason why, teachers ought to be updated and be able to deal with all kinds of

technological devices. Otherwise, pupils will feel they are being trained by

educators who do not know anything about their reality and needs. In conclusion,

in order to produce meaningful learning amongst students, it is absolutely

necessary to be aware of the technological features that take part of the

contemporary world.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL: Frequently, it is observed how the physical school

atmosphere is damaged. Noise, garbage, disrespect, emptiness, amongst other

features, disturb the environment that surrounds the experience of education.

Actions need to be taken so as to improve those aspects and affect in a positive

way how students get along with it.

4. ECONOMIC: As the social factors, economic aspects are also essential in the

process of learning. It is clear that higher social class students are more likely to

perform in a better way because of the numerous sources that they have at hand.

On the contrary, lower class students tend to have diminished results considering

the few opportunities they have to encounter new experiences for learning.

5. POLITICAL: Politics is a matter that does not only involve the state issues, but

global ones, and refers to all kinds of political and social connections inside and

outside the school. Diplomatic situations are also part of the political aspects that

somehow affect the academic performance of a child.

78

Furthermore, there are other forces named by Papathanasiou (2004)107

that are called

constructive forces. These are distinguished by their nature of focusing on the future. In other

words, what he tried to convey is that there is no need of looking back. However, what it is

needed to do is to find possible alternatives to solve the problems that have been diagnosed. It

makes sense to agree with that perspective since there is not much to do about those pedagogical

conflicts that have already happened. The idea is to try to avoid them in the future and to always

hope high. Moreover, he also mentions the importance of going through this process in order to

find the desired ‘identity’ that all institutions search for. Logically, this ‘identity’ wants to be

constructed by means of the worthy aspects that characterize the institution and this will only be

accomplished in due time as the negative features are left behind.

In regard to another element of action-research, Waddell (2011, cited on ‘Integrated

Spatial Assessment (ISA): A Multi-Methodological Approach for Planning Choices’ byCerreta&

De Toro, 2012)108

refers to the so-called ‘scenarios’. He establishes this concept as being situated

in the future, which actually supports Papathanasiou’s notion of action-research. Yet, it is worth-

mentioning other features that characterize these scenarios:

UNPREDICTIBLE: There is no certainty regarding how the remedial plan could

turn out. However, if well planned and set, there should be a light which could

lead to believe that it could have positive consequences for the learning process.

QUALITATIVE: Most of the results that are going to be obtained by the research

and application of the plan will be qualitative. This means that the results can be

clearly observed; however, the effects cannot be quantified.

107

Papathanasiou, A. N. (2004). Anchored in the future, Globalization and church consciousness: An orthodox

perspective. The Ecumenical Review, 56(2), 226-233. Foundations for Strategic Foresight.

108Cerreta, M. & De Toro, P. (2012). Integrated Spatial Assessment (ISA): A Multi-Methodological Approach for

Planning Choices.Published on March, 2012. Retrieved on October 2013;

from:http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/33246/InTech-

Integrated_spatial_assessment_isa_a_multi_methodological_approach_for_planning_choices.pdf

79

NO MORE THAN ONE FOCUS: The idea is that the plan that will be developed

is going to have one clear objective and the proper strategies in order to

accomplish it. Owing to the fact that the aim means to be entirely attained,

emphases should be made so as to guide the whole investigation towards the

prevailingly goal.

MULTIPLY THE OPTIONS: It is extremely important to consider that sometimes

something does not work out as the person has planned it. That is the reason why

there must be another option to be implemented. Luckily, the person applying the

methodology is going to have more than just one option. Be aware that the

scenarios are constantly evolving and therefore, educators must be prepared for a

change.

This investigation will combine features from other types of investigation so as to satisfy

the ultimate purpose of the paradigm of the research to be carried out in order to attain the

objective set at the beginning of this pedagogical conundrum.

All in all, these are the types of study that were applied somehow:

Exploratory Investigation:

The exploratory kind of investigation is distinguished by studying a subject matter which

has not been researched profoundly. In order to carry this investigation out, it is necessary to

consider the information observed, gathered and analyzed throughout the previous researches.

Additionally, in these kinds of studies both, the observational process and the registration of the

results are highly considered.

This sort of investigation supports the study of this thesis since the topic of feedback has

not been deeply researched in the pedagogical field. The amount of information found is limited

as well as the literary sources on this subject matter.

Predictive Investigation:

During this process, an event is observed for a pre-established amount of time. The idea is

to analyze and look for explanations and factors related and interconnected. In this way, the

80

person that is guiding the plan is going to have an idea about some behavior or tendency to

happen in the future. Logically, as the name states, there must be explanations on which to base

the predictions.

The relationship held with this investigation is that as there are not many conclusive facts

about feedback, only assumptions will be formulated. For example, if a prediction or assumption

is held then the study will foresee how this is going to affect the future behavior of the

phenomenon researched.

Confirmatory Investigation:

This type of investigation is related to the previous one; there is a series of predictions or

assumptions that can be confirmed or refuted. Consequently, elements from the confirmatory

investigation are definitely connected to this study, because the plan is based on foresights about

feedback that need to be ratified or disproved.

1.2 Epistemological Approach

By definition, and according to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “epistemology

is the study of knowledge and justified belief” (2005).109

Bearing that in mind, and only

considering the concept of knowledge, the study of epistemology tries to answer the questions of

how knowledge takes place, what the factors that influence knowledge are, and if there are any

limits for knowledge to occur, amongst others.

In relation to this investigation, the pedagogical perspective of the study is narrowly

connected to an epistemological approach. This is due to the fact that the research to be carried

out deals with how students from different levels, backgrounds, ages and other circumstances are

influenced by an important issue in the educational field: feedback.

109Stanford University of Philosophy, (2005).Epistemology.Retrieved on October 2013; from:

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/

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Considering the previous points, the study will try to answer the question if knowledge

takes place when feedback is delivered in the correct way and if the learners actually take action

after they receive it.

Additionally, the study of epistemology follows two lines of reasoning: empiricism and

rationalism. They can be described this way:

EMPIRICISM: this theory is based on the idea that the knowledge is acquired

through the experiences lived. In other words, all kinds of information and

knowledge that is obtained (connected to: life, school, job, etc.) takes place

because the person has encountered circumstances (life experiences) that have

made him/her learn.

RATIONALISM: according to this approach, humans acquire knowledge by

reasoning. Put in simpler words, this theory describes the attainment of knowledge

by means of thinking and reflecting on the issues that are meant to be learned.

The main difference that exists between these two branches of epistemology is that:

according to empiricism, knowledge only occurs a posteriori (after) This means that knowledge

takes place only after a meaningful learning experience connected to the learning has happened.

On the contrary, rationalism states that the learning can arise beforehand (a priori). This is due to

the fact that this theory establishes that reflecting before facing experiences can also lead to the

acquisition of knowledge.

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2. Data collection techniques and instruments

The selection and elaboration of the proper research instruments are imperative

throughout the whole collecting data process due to the fact that without this source it would be

impossible to have access to the information required so as to fulfill the expectations of this

analysis.

This methodological approach is referred to the particular types of data collection

methods. The importance of choosing the right techniques relies on the fact that it will allow the

data collected to meet the objectives of the research. It is well worth noting that when it is

specified as techniques, it is associated to concrete performance and data compilation that works

in relation to the theoretical foundations established before.

In general terms, the instruments and techniques used comprise in some way a summary

of all the previous work done before the investigation itself. It can be stated that the methods are

the practical and operative translation of the concepts and theoretical variables and, consequently,

general and specific objectives.

The range of different instruments to be used is inclined to be of a qualitative sort since

this kind of tools provides information about the inner motivation, in this case, of students, and

which their thoughts and emotions behind are (Campoy& Gomes, 2009).110

As these contribute

with deep evidence and a major comprehension of the phenomenon studied, they also offer more

flexibility while being applied and a closer connection with the subjects. The purpose of

qualitative data collection methods is to be able to tackle issues, try to understand them and

explain the impact they have on people’s behavior and ways of thinking: issues that can only be

approached using these methods. In effect, qualitative methods of data collection have various

goals:

Give chances to individuals to participate by means of their different experience,

which dispenses suitable antecedents to the study.

110

Campoy, T. & Gomes, E. (2009). Técnicas e instrumentos cualitativos de recogida de datos.Editorial EOS.

Retrieved on October 2013; from: http://www2.unifap.br/gtea/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/T_cnicas-e-

instrumentos-cualitativos-de-recogida-de-datos1.pdf

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Obtain information in context, state the facts, gain knowledge, process it and

interpret it in order to set up a project which makes sense in the local context.

Contribute to understanding often ignored aspects of issues linked to the project.

Gain ‘inside’ understanding of representations, attitudes, motivations and practices

of a group or a specific social group, by analyzing discourse and observing

practices.

Compare words with actions in order to identify possible contradictions between

what people say and what people do.

Qualitative methods collect information that is more than just conversations, records and

observations.According to SAGE (2007),111

accurate compilation and analysis of “the words and

pictures, gathered as evidence about a topic, enhance the position of educators to build a

convincing body of knowledge on which to improve educational practices.” The same source

supports why qualitative tools are better in these circumstances due to there are human

motivations involved to be understood. Within this field, these data is particularly informative to

answer questions related to:

Meaning: The understanding of situations (kept in subjects’ minds as meanings) is

subjective and varies, depending on personal experiences. Questions about

meaning will clarify preferences of groups, the individuals who ask the question

and the ones who respond.

Context: Which influences meaning or understanding. It could be taken from a

personal perspective (age, gender or cultural background) or the community

context (wealthy or poor; rural or urban; economically stable or unstable).

Understanding the process: The background that led to the situation and actions

need to be comprehended and reported.

111

SAGE, (2007).Qualitative Data Collection.SAGE Research Methods. Retrieved on October 2013; from:

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/15565_Chapter_4.pdf

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Causal relationship: Understanding the complex situations that cause people to

make decisions is the key to comprehend the cultural mechanics created within a

community, school or certain group.

Therefore, qualitative instruments are appropriate because they can be very helpful to

figure out people’s reactions, beliefs and behavior more clearly, especially in this participatory

typed research. Again, SAGE (2006)112

mentions four methods which are the most reliable and

typical among qualitative researches. These are: (a) observation, (b) participant observation, (c)

and analyzing documents and material culture.

a. Observation. It is frequently referred to as field notes in which detailed,

nonjudgmental, concrete description of what has been observed are recorded. For instance,

classroom studies are evidence of this type of technique. The researcher is expected to document

and describe actions and relationships that cannot be inferred from other sources of information.

By using this technique, it is assumed that behaviors are purposeful and are able to express deep

values and beliefs.

b. Participant observation. From an anthropological and sociological point of view, this

method is an essential element of all qualitative studies. As its name suggests, it requires a

firsthand immersion in the social world chosen for the investigation. This involvement in the

setting permits to hear, to see, and to start feeling the local reality as the individuals do. Also, it

offers the opportunity to learn directly from the experience and daily life there.

c. Background and Context and Review of Documents.This could not be the principal

element of a qualitative research but, indeed, it adds what may be considered important historical,

geographic and, sometimes demographic information. Investigators complement participant

observation and observation itself with gathering and analyzing documents produced and

constructed by the group of everyday acts with the intention of supplementing knowledge of the

history and context of the specific setting. Although, sometimes content analysis can be viewed

as an objective and neutral way of obtaining a quantitative description, therefore proper

112SAGE, (2006).Data Collection Methods.SAGE Research Methods. Retrieved on October 2013; from:

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/10985_Chapter_4.pdf

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interpretation must be taken. In this case, numbers cannot speak by themselves, and a logic

interpretation would be necessary when inferring meaning from the data.

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III. SCENARIO AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

SUBJECTS UNDER INVESTIGATION

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1. Scenario: School background

1.1 2º “B” Villa Las Nieves School

1.1.1 School

Villa Las Nieves Elementary School is a relatively new educational establishment. It

comes to light on the 31st of May in the year 1993. It is located in the northern part of the city of

Punta Arenas, Chile in the neighborhood that carries the same name. In the year 2000 this

educative establishment, implements the JEC or “Jornada Escolar Completa”, which consists of

having the students during the morning and afternoon hours, serving the purposes of reinforcing

the exigencies of the Educational Reform in Chile, which are equity and participation for all kids.

The English subject in this school for this grade comprises two pedagogical hours per

week. This seems to be a small amount of time and such can be the reason why they do not show

that much interest or motivation. Classes are mostly carried out in Spanish and their listening as

well as their speaking skills are quite weak.

1.1.2 Environment

“Villa Las Nieves School” aims to reinforce the educational areas through a Management

Team that is in charge of promoting the notions of: “learning to know, learning to be, learning to

do and learning to live together”. In other words, they mean to transform the school into a

“physical, technical-pedagogical, human and administrative environment where all the

community members take part of a teaching-learning process emphasizing the school’s principles

in each of the sections of the Study Plans.

Following the previous point, it can be stated that the school works as a whole in order to

accomplish the general objective which deals with transforming the environment of the school

into a welcoming atmosphere that receives all students.

Generally, the environment of the school can be defined as pretty healthy. Learners are

quite noisy during recess and somewhat respectful when inside the classrooms. It is an everyday

experience seeing all teachers greeting each other and the children with a smile on their faces.

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Moreover, the educational assistants are also an important part of the establishment and they take

a relevant role in the teaching and learning process. This is why they are also deeply involved in

the school matters.

For a trainee, it is a great experience to be received so well in a school such as Villa Las

Nieves as students, teachers, and the other members of the school community work really hard to

make the functioning of the institution according to the standards promoted by the Educational

reform.

1.1.3 Type of school

Villa Las Nieves School is a subsidized institution, economically dependent of the Punta

Arenas Illustrious Municipality and it was created to attend the needs of the population living in

that section of the town.

As time passes, they have acquired a number of certifications that include the

“CertificaciónAmbiental” (2004) and “RecertificaciónAmbiental” (2006), which is led by the

Management Team, involving several organizations from the neighborhood. In addition, in the

year 2004, the school obtains the Academic Excellence for two years and later, this accolade is

earned again for the following two years.

Having that in mind, they have proposed, planned and carried out projects and ACLES

related to develop the environmental issues that concern them. For example, they have

incorporated workshops to sow seeds and harvest fruits and vegetables; they have installed UV

ray traffic lights to be aware of the radiation and its consequences, and teach students about how

to take care of a greenhouse.

1.1.4 Vision and Mission

VISION: The first point covered is that of a welcoming and friendlyschool. They

aspire to have an institution which strives to get high academic results, educating

youngsters with an optimum integral formation. This process is meant to be developed

in an atmosphere that: promotes the learning instances, and the life quality of all

members of the community, providing opportunities for the adaption of all kinds of

modifications that take place inside the society.

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MISSION: This school is characterized by being an ‘environmental awareness’

promoter. This is the reason why it encourages a healthy lifestyle in all aspects that

influence a vigorous existence (diet, physical exercise, green issues, etc.).

Furthermore, it is stated that this institution seeks to form adolescents that are

prepared to face society and transform it into a fairer, more humanistic, and generous

one. Finally, the last point mentioned deals with the concept of young people

respecting the cultural diversity.

1.1.5 Socio-economical factor

Despite the fact that this is a subsidized school, most of the learners do not face social and

economic situation. In fact, the socio-economic situation of learners corresponds to a ‘middle-

level’. Moreover, a 32,5% of vulnerability is observed amongst the students. Thus, most kids are

quite capable of accomplishing all the requirements made by the school.

1.1.6 Kind of learner

The kind of learner observed considers the younger second graders. These are

characterized by being very enthusiastic towards the learning opportunities. Most of them show a

great deal of excitement when the English class is about to start. Several show their emotion and

anxiety through question such as: ¿quévamos a hacer hoy?, ¿vamos a haceralgoentretenido?,

¿miraremos un video o algoasí?.Of course, all the questions are asked in Spanish. The eagerness

towards what is going to be covered during the class is evident and demonstrates their anxious

personality.

Furthermore, scholars are demanding and they get bored really fast; when this happens,

they start messing around. The fast learners are the ones who begin disturbing their classmates

and teasing around when they have not finished their tasks.

Most of the times, they are manageable as long as the teacher applies the proper tools and

strategies for them to pay attention and follow the class.

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1.1.7 Presence of Educational Assistants

“Villa Las Nieves School” also counts with plans of action that help the functioning of the

school and the accomplishment of its objectives. Two of those are: “School Integration Program”

and “Mothers inside the Classroom”.

Both of them catch the attention since they involve the participation of specialists and

mothers in the process of learning at school. It is not commonly seen that relatives intervene that

closely in a learning situation; however, it serves the purpose of attending some of the needs the

teacher cannot, especially in younger grades.

In simpler words, the “Mothers inside the Classroom Program” involves a mother who

helps to organize the class, to make the kids be silent, to finish their assignments accordingly, and

so on. This system has proved to be effective because sometimes they need some more pressure

in order to get their tasks done.

Sometimes, the fact that there are too many young students under the care of just one

adult makes it a little harder to get everything accomplished. When there is a mother helping, the

huge job seems to be lighter and more attainable.

Furthermore, the assistance of a ‘Psychopedagogist’ is also visualized in this school.

Either inside or outside the classroom their job is really important. Having kids with

Hyperactivity and Attention Deficit Disorder (in cases, both of them) and some other kinds of

conditions makes the teaching-learning process difficult for just one person. However, with the

help of a specialist, children seem to accomplish all their assignments.

1.1.8 Kind of teacher

As it has been observed, the typical Villa Las Nieves School teacher is quite entertaining

and concerned about the students’ behavior and well-being. Most of them are very caring and

tend to be asking children all the time how they are. Besides, they also present lots of concrete

material because they are aware of the importance of this in the learners’ process.

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On the other hand, they are updated in relation to the use of TICS as far as the school

allows it. This is because sometimes the school does not count with enough projectors for the

teachers. Educators from this school also have a close relationship with the children’s parents.

This is visualized when they have meetings with them at individual interviews and are available

to talk with them when they arrive before 8 am.

1.1.9 Environment inside the classroom

1.1.9.1 Conditions of the space

Fortunately, the infrastructure of the school allows all students to feel perfectly

comfortable to develop their learning process as it counts with an ample site for the children to go

play outside. The establishment is well-equipped with proper lighting and furniture, too.

More specifically, the classrooms are quite spacious and warm. Kids organize their room

to place their books and copybooks. Each one has a safe and firm desk and chair. Ventilation

might be one of the problems to be encountered inside the classrooms.

All of the points mentioned above help learners to go through an efficient learning

process.

1.1.9.2 The use of TICS

This point was mentioned above in the sense that the school sometimes lack of these tools

to work with. Teachers do not organize themselves the times in which they will need them, so if

an instructor needs a projector, he/she will have to be early enough to make use of one.

On the other hand, other kinds of technological devices are not seen in this school. They

do not have an interactive board, for instance. Most of the classrooms have a radio set and a few

have their own projector (financed by the parents).

1.1.9.3 Students’ disposition

As previously stated, students show themselves very willing to learn most of the time.

Nonetheless, there are days in which they behave quite disturbingly. This somehow interferes

with the natural flow of the class and it makes it difficult for the teacher to manage all of them.

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In spite of the small conflict of misbehavior, the students’ attitudes are a factor that allows

the teacher to cover the content with no problem.

1.1.9.4 Guide teacher’s role

The current role of the Guide Teacher is primarily in terms of keeping the students in

silence when they start disturbing the course of the class. If there is too much noise, she will tend

to stop the whole class and make the student/students be quite and respectful.

There is not much influence of the Guide Teacher in the class itself. The trainee is the one

in charge of the activities and, if necessary, the trainee asks the Guide Teacher to assist her in any

aspect.

1.1.9.5 Mood

Most of the time, the mood in which the classes are given is proper. This is due to the fact

that the kids allow this to happen. They behave quite well so the teacher does not get disturbed or

teased by those children. Moreover, this atmosphere allows the students to have time to have a

little chat, joke and laugh without having to interrupt the class abruptly.

1.2 6th

B – Patagonia School

1.2.1 School

Patagonia School is a public school that has been opened to the whole community for many

years. Its services are available for any kind of student; therefore, there are no obstacles for

students despite their social or economic circumstances and/or learning abilities.

Physically, the building is placed in an intersection between Covadonga and

CapitánGuillermos streets; and is accessible to the educative community from many areas of the

city, such as: Barrio Prat, Villa Selk’nam, Aves Australes, CardenalRaúl Silva Henríquez among

others.

1.2.2 Type of school

Patagonia School and its entire community have established general statements by means

of constant, active and coherent participation of all its members. These parameters are all present

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of the PEI (ProyectoEducativoInstitucional) and will also guide the principal actions to be taken

within the institutions tasks.

Among these responsibilities, the expected schooling targets to the integral development

of the learner, as well as giving a perception of the current world which is intended to update

accordingly. Therefore, students are expected to evolve in this matter, and be able to adapt

themselves to social, cultural and technological changes through the growth of an analytical and

demanding spirit.

1.2.3 Vision and Mission

VISION: To strengthen and become established as an institution which provides

humane formation, which is expected to be renovated according to the avant-garde

movements on education; as well as to make the whole community, professionals,

students and their families part of the mission.

MISSION: From a constructivist perspective, Escuela Patagonia is determined to

design and organize cognitive, psycho-social and artistic skills,in the students,

integrally and harmonically. This is intended to be displayed within a healthy

coexistence giving emphasis to the value of life, care and respect for environment, and

a sense of belonging for national and regional culture.

1.2.4 Environment

According to what has been exposed before, Escuela Patagonia expects to generate a type

of education in which analysis and evaluation is regular throughout the educative task. Also, it is

a must to foster methodological innovation by means of a periodic refinement in which team

work among the teachers is strengthened, resources for pedagogical support are implemented,

and the curriculum is revised so as to fit the proper characteristics of the students. From these, it

is expected a suitable adaptation to the current world requirements in which they can succeed by

making use of their abilities, along with a critical attitude about their strengths and weaknesses;

and cognitive tools proper for the education that is required in the society.

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The institution does not believe that learning takes place only inside the classroom, but all

through every activity that is promoted. This is the reason why many massive competitions in

subjects such as Language, Mathematics, Science and History, are encouraged; different

scenarios where students have the opportunities to perform their skills and learning. Nonetheless,

due to the whole instruction of the pupil, it is necessary to prepare a wide range of all kinds of

activities such as: musical presentations, festivals, sporting events and contests. It is in these

types of circumstances (massive participation) in which the full development of the students is

complemented.

English Program

1. English subjects plans from Kindergarten to 4th

grade were particularly created for the

students’ age, level and needs of this school; and these are based on the national

curriculum and the international standards for this subject.

2. For 2013, English language has been boosted by means of many human and material

resources. About the material tools, the school has provided for each group of student:

a data projector, a computer, smart/interactive board, ITC room and Science

laboratory, which will certainly support different audiovisual and practical exercises.

Among the human resources, this year the institution will count on a native English

speaker who will give support to lessons and be a vivid example of real world contact,

generating a need for communication and, therefore, for motivation to learn and

acquire this tongue as a foreign language.


Features related to socio-economical framework can be observed within this public

school. Most of the students seem to belong to a low level, students are able to bring materials

into the lessons and carry out all the activities throughout the lessons.

1.2.6 Kind of learner

Within this particular group, the type of students found are kids aged from 10 to 12 years

old who currently belong to 6th

grade of school. The group is composed by a number of 38

students who are about to get into adolescence stage. Basically, most of them do not show

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excitement about lessons in general since attending to school is an issue imposed to them.

However, there is an important part of the class which pays attention and enjoys English classes

since ‘different’ activities are developed in every class.

Regularly, since many kids are asked to behave themselves repeatedly throughout the

lesson, it is well worth mentioning that keeping students’ attention is a hard task to deal with.

Various children are used to behave and work as long as it is given as a compulsory duty.

1.2.7 Kind of teacher

Instructors who work at Patagonia School always show commitment and concern about

students’ integral development and academic and social skills.

Most of them show special care about fulfilling the expectations established and designed

by the institution, in terms of uniform, behavior and peer treatment inside the building. Also,

teachers are concerned about accomplishing the tasks stated by the Ministry of Education as well

as the programs planned by the Head of Studies.

What is related to methodological issues, it can be said that there is an evident lack of

innovation which is observable during the lessons. Its absence plays a key role in students’

motivation. This fact could be taken as a negative element.



This issue can be conceived as an advantage since each group of students can have their

own room to work in. Students from 6th

have a comfortable room, even though it can be observed

that windows, tables, board and walls are stained and partially broken with curtains torn up.

In spite of these, the classroom has a pretty good lighting and a perfect temperature, as

well as a good sitting arrangement, giving both teachers and students the chance to move around.


Inside the institution, each room has its own projector, even though some of them do not

work perfectly (connection, wires or device itself problems). This is a suitable tool to be used in

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order to improve students’ motivation, yet as these gadgets are not well maintained (technically)

and covered with dust, only a few teachers make use of them.

Also, an interactive/smart board can be found at the ICT room; nonetheless, it must be

shared by all teachers and students in turns.


Most of the students show themselves very talkative at the beginning of the class. As it

was stated before, there is an important number that behaves in a disruptive way making it

difficult to keep their attention.

Another fact to mention is that there is good number of students that always work along

with the teacher, and sometimes do not need further explanation to carry out the activities.

1.2.8.4 Teachers’ role

Both instructors (guide teacher and trainee) work together. To accomplish the class

objectives previously established, they help at each other to keep the discipline inside the

classroom.The guide teachers’ workconsists of monitoring and directly observing students’ class

performance.

This last element has been clearly evident since there has been less time for learners to

misbehave or avoid doing activities.

1.3 2º “C” INSUCO High School

1.3.1 School

Instituto Superior de Comercio (INSUCO) is a technical-professional High School with

many years of existence in the community. It is an institution which maintains its open doors to

any kind of student, even if she/he does not manifest the desire of obtaining a technical degree

afterwards.

The school presents motivation as a main goal among its learners. The whole team

composed by the Principal, Head of Studies and teachers follow the idea of creating full

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awareness in the students about their own learning and formative process by giving special

emphasis on excellence and high quality education.

Academically speaking, the main goal is to build the process of learning by accomplishing

the contents giving by the Ministry of Education as a first step. Later, those contents implemented

by the areas of technical-professional courses that are part of the school take a great place within

the internal programs. On the other hand, there is an essential aspect to be worked with: the

development of citizens who care about others as a method to make a real impact in the rest of

the society, basing their actions on certain values such as respect, tolerance, positive behavior and

abilities in order to prepare students for eventual adjustment to changes.

As any other Educational Institution, it is led by general objectives which shape the way in

which the school works. In this particular case, those objectives are reduced to the following:

- From a systematic and integrated viewpoint; to strength the institutional conditions and

of management by means of generating structures and participative processes that

assure the continuous improvement of the quality of education and the development of

the school community.

- To implement and evaluate strategies of improvement at curricular and pedagogical

levels, with the purpose of reinforcing in a meaningful way the teaching and learning

processes, elevating the academic results.

Specifically in the English subject, INSUCO does not prepare a special program or optional

curricular adjustments to deal with it. Hence, the basic contents come directly from the curricula

generated by the Ministry. The subject takes four pedagogical hours per grades during the week.

Teachers use as much English as possible, although students are quite close to do the effort for

acquiring the language voluntarily.

1.3.2 Environment

INSUCO, as educational institution, follows one main goal: to create a school community

that integrates everybody. In simpler words, it pretends to systematically develop the ability of

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working as a whole; students, teachers, assistants, parents and any other member of the place is

important to carry out the functionality of the school with complete success. However, there is,

indeed, a notorious emphasis on the technical areas which are implemented in its internal

structure.

Regarding the daily routine of the community, teachers and authorities of the school are

always monitoring the correct development of students’ formation. Inside the classrooms, as well

as in the recess, adults are focused on learners’ behavior so as to assure that values are reinforced

in every possible opportunity.

All in all, it is an excellent environment to work since there is a constant awareness of

respect among all the community (including teachers, students, parents, etc.). Also, it is

admirable how the integration programs have a relevant place inside the school. There is a

permanent sense of respect among all the members of the community.

Teachers always help one another, making the process easier as every subject is somehow

connected to the others.

1.3.3Type of school

INSUCO is a Public Technical-Professional High School located in the downtown area of

Punta Arenas. It is an institution of 77 years of existence and it economically depends on the

State of Chile.

1.3.4Vision and Mission

VISION: From a historical and cultural framework, and taking into account the

pedagogical perspective, INSUCO sees its educational role as a process that allows

the proper development of students who are able to manage qualitative knowledge in

the technical-professional modality. Also, it is important to improve the students’

connection with personal, social and cultural aspects regarding the value of life and

their surroundings; all this immersed in a profound ethical sense together with a

democratic coexistence demanded by the challenges of the XXI century.

MISSION: To improve collaboratively the cognitive, affective and attitudinal

development of the students. In addition, to contribute in the training of a person,

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citizen and professional able to manage the required competences to act in favor of the

autonomy, honesty and responsibility in the personal, social, cultural and working

world.


The socio-economic circumstances which are present inside this public high school are

quite evident. Students belong to the lower-level; they are young people who are part of the

vulnerable group of the population.

The biggest difference stated by this factor corresponds to the lack of material required to

carry out basic activities during the lessons together with the limits established on the contents to

be lectured by the teachers.

1.3.6Kind of Learner

In this occasion, the kind of learners observed are teenagers of 15 and 16 years old who

currently belong to 2nd

grade of High School. They are a group of 28 students who go through

adolescence with all the common issues it brings. Normally, most of them do not show much

interest on their formation and learning process; attending to classes is something imposed and

meaningless to them. Thus, it is a daily battle to obtain their attention and make them participate

in their own development as learners.

These teenagers are used to work as long as someone (teacher) gives a mandatory sense to

it. They always ask which activity will be evaluated and which ‘does not have further value’ in

order to decide whether to do an effort on completing the tasks or do something else.

1.3.7Kind of teacher

Teachers at INSUCO are always concerned about their students’ progress and

corresponding results. However, sometimes there is an attitude that overvalues marks instead of

giving more importance to the real meaningful learning in case there is one.

Most of them are extremely responsible and accomplish the tasks given by the Ministry of

Education as well as the internal programs designed by the Head of Studies. They have a great

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environment among them in which they share and help one another every time it is required. The

same scenario is repeated towards the students.

In terms of academic matters, there is a lack of material innovation which can be

identified as the main drawback.



Luckily, the school has an enormous space generously divided into several classrooms.

Students from 2º C have a comfortable room to work in. Nonetheless, the English class is

supposed to be carried out in two different groups as a way of controlling discipline.

The classroom has the adequate lighting and a perfect temperature all the time. Tables

are well arranged so as to give teachers and students the possibility to move around the space

easily.


The school has one projector which should be shared by all teachers, taking turns to use it.

However, most of them do not use that tool within their classes. One exception is the English

class where trainees take advantage of technology and use it to display videos, songs and power

point presentations.

Particularly, in the case of the 2º C grade, they have an enormous television that teachers

can use instead of the projector when it is necessary. Despite the objects previously mentioned,

there are no further technological devices available inside this high school.


As it was mentioned in the kind of learner section, this group of students corresponds to

teenagers, so they have a constant attitude of boredom and show their lack of interest towards

almost everything.

With the purpose of giving a sort of solution to this serious issue happening in English

classes, guide teachers and trainees decided to apply strategies concerning discipline,

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responsibility and participation within their lessons. Students obtain certain points class-by-class

as long as they bring their materials to the classroom, behave themselves and complete the tasks

required. Thisdecision has brought positive results among them as they started complying with

the exigencies stated.

1.3.8.4 Guide teachers’ role

Currently, the role of the guide teachers is essentially monitoring the correct development

of the class. They seat at the back of the classroom and observe students’ behavior and

participation, making suggestions when necessary, and evaluating trainees and learners at

different tasks.

1.3.8.5 Mood

During most of the classes, there is a pleasant mood among the students. At the beginning

of the lessons they are always talkative until the teachers start leading them to a more appropriate

environment of work in which the class must be developed.

As long as students’ disposition is positive towards the class, teachers allow them to

combine work and chatting at the right balance in order to give them the opportunity to feel even

more comfortable than usual.

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2. Subjects of the study

2.1 Villa Las Nieves School

2.1.1 Subject 1: IG – Outstanding Performance

Family and Social Context

As observed, this kid is one that shows a noticeable assistance at home. She presents

homework that is well developed every Friday and all of her materials just properly arranged. It is

inferred that her parents are actively involved in the student’s process of learning. Moreover, her

economic situation is another factor that might be helpful in her condition as a brilliant student.

For example, she never presents problems because she does not have a notebook or a pen. She

has all her materials in excellent conditions. Her social status can be identified as being middle

(which is the average of her school, and it might be a bit higher than that).

Characteristics

This learner is characterized by being very responsible and attentive. She usually pays

attention during the whole class. Generally, she is one of the students who wants to participate all

the time and it is observable that she has certain aptitudes towards learning the language. Besides,

it is also noticeable that the child has clear studying habits. This is due to the fact that each class,

she is able to recall everything covered from the previous lesson. Furthermore, the marks she has

obtained through the year have been outstanding and represent her constant efforts to improve her

performance.

Strategies Applied

Every time she took a test, she was one of the first ones in finishing it. Owing to the

previous fact, teachers had to make sure she did a good job and asked her to recheck the test

before handing it in. Then, the test was taken and she was given something else to do in order to

keep herself busy.

When they were corrected, most of the time she got the perfect score. Logically, she got

the maximum mark (7.0). When this was the case, several strategies could be applied:

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A pretty and feminine sticker was pasted next to the mark.

A big, capitalized and clear “CONGRATULATIONS!” was written near the mark.

A big ‘smiley’ was drawn near the mark (once accompanied by the previous strategy).

A big and distinguished “PERFECT!” was written near the mark.

These four techniques were the options that were considered for this student when she got

the perfect score. These strategies were applied in this way, since it was discussed that even

though she got the maximum mark, the idea was to keep on encouraging the pupil to maintain

such a great performance. She received it very happily demonstrating that she was one of the best

at it.

However, whenever she did not get a 7.0, she would receive a test with the following

strategies:

Wow!

Nice going!

Keep it up!

These three short texts were written in order to let her know that even though she did not

get a perfect mark, she did well (in the case of the first two texts). Nonetheless, in the case of the

last one, this brief phrase was given so as to insist on her not lowering her grades.

Of course, when mistakes were found, they were corrected next to it and given the right

answer. This follows the notions given by several authors in the theoretical framework. In

this way, the student is conscious of the errors and how she could have gotten them right.

On the other hand, it is necessary to notice that every time the test was delivered, the

teachers made sure she understood the words written for her. On the contrary, the expected effect

was not going to be accomplished.

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2.1.2 Subject 2: DR – Acceptable Performance


This kid is conspicuously part of a family that cares a little about the child’s learning

process. For example, the student comes to class late almost every Friday; this occurrence tends

to be frequent during the school days. Moreover, his aspect regarding the school uniform and

hygiene are poor and it is very typical to observe him wearing his outfit with clear food or marker

stains.

Furthermore, his course books, notebook and pencil case are sometimes left at home,

which can lead to believe that the family is not aware of the child’s timetable or simply does not

have time to accomplish those kinds of tasks. If homework was given last Friday, commonly, he

has excuses why he did not do it. Logically, second graders are forgetful, so the family should

supportand reminding this particular student of his school duties.

Characteristics

As a learner, he is usually distracted. He does not pay much attention even if the activities

proposed are fun and catchy. Rarely, he has intention to participate. If he does, he gives the right

answer. Moreover, he needs to have a “Mother in the classroom” (or teacher) near him in order

for him to feel pressure and start his tasks. If this does not occur, he is not likely to finish (not

even begin) any of the assignments. Frequently, he relies on these people to explain everything

again because he was not listening when the activity was given or the examples done.

Furthermore, he tends to find excuses to spare work or to go to the bathroom several times

during the period of class. This makes it very complicated for him to concentrate and keep

focused for a considerable amount of time.

In relation to his marks, he usually obtains grades that are acceptable. His average is

around 5.8 and does not care if he does well or not in the tests. This also shows his indifference

and indolence when it comes to any kind of subjects, because it was found out that this type of

behavior is common in all subjects.

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Strategies Applied

As it was previously stated, he was not the type of student who could concentrate very

easily. This is one of the reasons why, during the tests, the teacher had to be constantly

monitoring his work. Asking for understanding was another important fact to take into account as

well as designing the strategy to be applied in order to check if he could continue doing the right

thing.

In regard to the strategies applied to this child, it is necessary to say that they were

discussed and considered for his particular situation and circumstances. In the case that he

performed better than in other opportunities, these were some of the techniques implemented:

A sticker (car and train) was pasted next to the mark.

A big and highlighted “That’s much better!” in red was written near the mark.

“You’re improving” was also written next to the mark.

A ‘smiley’ face was drawn next to the mark.

These were the strategies utilized when the scholar showed some kind of improvement in

his performance during the tests or quizzes taken. These were applied for him to feel more

motivated on keeping improving even if he demonstrated a little progress.

However, there were two instances in which the student performed badly and showed no

enhancement whatsoever. In these opportunities, the teachers considered the following:

“You’ve done better” was written next to the mark in black.

“Not bad, but you can do better” was also posted next to the mark.

When these two texts were written, they were also explained (just as the previous ones). It

was confirmed that the student was able to understand what the teacher wanted to convey. In the

first case, the instructor clarified what he had done in previous instances and that he had lowered

his mark (even if a little). So, the teacher recommended not to go back to his previous behavior

and to keep on enhancing. And in the case of the second one, the student lowered his mark as

well, but he did not get a bad grade. Nevertheless, the educator wanted to assure that the mark he

got could be improved if he had studied more or if he had concentrated in a better way.

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In both cases, when the student made a mistake, the teacher made the correction right next

to it. This is due to the fact that the scholar can clearly visualize his mistake and perfectly know

how to get it right.

2.1.3 Subject 3: ES – Poor Performance


This student has a considerable support at home in school matters. For example, in only

one opportunity, the scholar came to class without his course books and copybook. However, as

he had his other notebooks there, he asked if he could write in one of them.

On the other hand, when given homework, he always presented his tasks duly carried out.

This fact also reflects the parents’ concern about his learning process. In relation to his personal

appearance, he always looked properly dressed as the school requested.

Characteristics

In the case of this student, at first, he looked very lost and demotivated. He did not

understand much and seemed not to care about the subject. He did not participate at all, and if he

was not a volunteer, the teacher would ask him to provide an answer, which would not be

satisfactory to the educator’s request. Besides, he had trouble concentrating and, most of the time

he was focused on doing anything else instead of writing down or paying attention. Moreover, he

was a very slow student and hardly ever completed any assignment required.

In regard to his marks, he had a very low average in the English subject. Apparently, this

behavior was not only related to this matter, but to other subjects at school as well.

Strategies Applied

In relation to the strategies applied, the student began to show much improvement as the

term went by. Whenever this was the case, these techniques were implemented:

A sticker was placed next to the mark.

A big and prominent “Excellent!” was written next to the mark.

“Sensational!” was also commented next to the mark.

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These strategies adopted were very conveniently used because the student realized that he

was doing a great job. In some cases, he even got perfect scores and he also received a ‘smiley’

face that assured him he was improving. Amazingly as it sounds, this particular student did not

show a negative behavior afterwards. In other words, he only improved since the study began.

2.2 Patagonia School

2.2.1 Subject 1: SL – Outstanding Performance


From simple direct observation, it can be inferred that this student has full support at

home. Firstly, his garments are presented in pretty perfect conditions: always clean and tidy.

Besides, his homework is mostly well presented and developed, and materials in pretty good

conditions and available. In effect, relatives at his home must be concerned about him since all

these proofs and the performance at school are the ones expected from an ideal student.

Characteristics

This pupil is characterized and recognized by being polite, helpful with his classmates as

well as very responsible when attending to the lessons. He is always paying attention to the

instructions and attentive when the teacher is explaining and exposing. Once he finishes with the

activities given, this student asks for more exercises showing, by means of this attitude, that he is

really interested in English lessons and consequently in language acquisition. In sum, it can be

said that he has a good disposition when participation in class is required.

It is well worth noting that he demonstrates commitment not only in English classes but

also in other subjects. So, his studying habits can be observed clearly at every class, and his

marks and qualifications are such an evident example of the continuous efforts carried out across

the academic year.

Another characteristic to keep in mind is that his presence was always very noticeable

most of the time inside the room. This student tended to sing, whistle or talk with partners while

working and always approached to the guide teacher or trainee within the entire session.

However, in order to give instructions to the class, make corrections or not distract other

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classmates, there were particular opportunities when he was asked to be quiet since it was part of

his nature to work in such a ‘melodic’ way. It is in this field where the learner can be defined as a

pretty sociable element being considered as a positive influence in this particular group of

students.

Strategies Applied

When the opportunity to give feedback was presented, it was given in a clear way so the

student could understand the comment by himself. Along with this, it was also provided a couple

of spoken words with the clear intention to boost the learner’s language performance.

Hence, and in line with this thought, every time a test or an activity was checked, this

pupil got the maximum score and met the expectations required. Some written observations were

provided in the sheet, such as:

‘Well done’ (big letter capitalization written next to the mark).

‘Super’ (big letter capitalization next to the mark).

A smiley face drawn along with one of the previous phrases.

The preceding techniques were performed every time the student fulfilled the expectations

in terms of scoring. These were given in such a way that SL could understand that the intention

behind was to guide him on the same path: keep going with the same attitude and effort for the

next assessment.

Nonetheless, there were also opportunities when the learner was not able to achieve the

total amount of points. In this case, it was necessary to apply comments as:

Nice trying!

On the right track!

Keep going like this!

These three short phrases exemplified that despite the fact SL did not get the whole

amount of points, he performed in a good way. It is well worth mentioning that the last remark

was given with the purpose to foster the best attitude towards the lessons and keep with the effort

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showed at every try. Also, when it was necessary to give the right answer, it was given

immediately so the student might know what was expected from him.

2.2.2 Subject 2: IG – Acceptable Performance


From teacher’s perspective, it can be perceived thanks to different characteristics that the

student can count on support and care from his family. Most of the time, materials are properly

provided from home and his outfit is always clean and tidy. Moreover, tasks are well developed

and handed on time, and this can be a proof that there is suitable concern about his performance

at school.

Characteristics

In this case, it can be described that the subject is full of energy. As a learner, IG is

usually distracted and doing any other type of activity. He is always trying to keep himself busy

with any kind of exercise: it may be part of the English class (if interesting for him), other subject

or even playing around with certain objects, and often sadly distracting others. In sum, he does

not pay too much attention even if the activities given are fun and attractive.

Having the previous facts in mind, instructors’ work is the key so as to have this kid

focused during the lessons. If the boy is attracted, he may be a good element inside the

classroom. His performance can become a positive impact among the rest of the class since he is

willing to contribute all the time. No problems are presented when he comes to be part of the

class, so there is a need to provide the most suitable exercises and activities to make him

intervene.

In relation to his assessment, he tends to achieve marks that can be improved with a bit of

effort. In this field, his development is neither the best nor poor, yet could be boosted if more

focus during the tests is applied. In this case, more personal concern and interest are needed from

this student.

Strategies Applied

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Having prior facts in mind, it can be set that for this student it is not an easy task to be

concentrated during instructions. This is the main reason why the guide teacher along with the

trainee had to intervene on IG’s behavior and conduct constantly. Monitoring every action was

one of the principal exercises carried out so he could be engaged as much as possible with the

activities proposed by the instructors.

On one hand, where his performance was better than other opportunities, the

commentaries employed were the following:

“This is the way to do it” (big letter capitalization next to the mark).

“Don’t give up! It’s just the beginning” (big letter capitalization next to the mark).

A smiley face drawn along with one of the previous phrases.

On the other, there were moments in which the performance was lower than expected, and

his level of English was not according to the results. For these occasions, the strategies used

were:

Use your skills. It can be better.

Don’t let this stop you. You’re so much better.

When giving these last two phrases, they were not written in a big letter size. Instead it

was a regular one, and they were along with a small spoken comment from the trainee so it was

checked if the student was able to understand the written feedback provided. Furthermore, errors

were clarified by providing the right answers within the test or activity, making him aware of

what was expected from his performance.

In addition, instructors gave important emphasis to the fact that if the subject was more

concerned at the moment of the test and did the effort, there were great possibilities of having

positive outcomes. If IG found mentally immersed as possible, the results would increase and be

much better with no doubt.

2.2.3 Subject 3: VA – Poor Performance


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From an outer perspective, it can be observed that this girl can count upon her family

support and concern regularly. As every day, she presents the materials needed (notebook, course

book and pencils) and wears a clean and tidy uniform.

However, when it comes to deal with tasks and homework, she barely brings into the class

the assignments asked by the guide teacher. It is in this field where VA lacks of backup at home,

and its consequences can be evidenced when she tries to work in the classroom: any support she

receives is appreciated and strengthens her development, aiding to generate better results.

Characteristics

Her involvement in the lessons can be classified as poor since she did not show herself

active within the exercises. Anytime, the guide teacher asks her many times to ‘get back to work’,

she tends to look lost and discouraged resembling a notion of misunderstanding of the subject. It

can be observed that her concentration only focuses on issues of her own preferences, giving

academic matters a second place. In sum, it can be concluded that this girl has problems when

approaching the English lessons and feels uncomfortable in classes, making the task of

completing any exercise such a difficult concern to accomplish.

As a consequence, her grades are a fine proof of her low accomplishment, not only in

English classes, but the rest of the subjects as well.

Strategies Applied

As her development turned to be low, family support began to be applied within her

performance. Little by little, the learner started to show interest in classes since she wanted to

improve her marks. In relation to this, certain strategies were applied on her progression, so as to

enhance and encourage this attitude. These techniques were:

“Excellent progress. Keep moving”.

“This is a sample of your hardworking”.

“Show that you can do better”.

These strategies used exemplified that the current change of attitude was the extra

motivation that she needed to become successful. Also, when these appeared on her activities or

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tests, she realized that something different was happening and that more benefits could be

obtained if effort was applied on lessons.

2.3 INSUCO High School

2.3.1. Subject 1: JL – Outstanding Performance


JL is a girl who is going through all kinds of changes as any other teenager at her age

(15). She lives with her mother and has one brother only, who is in fact, a half-brother from her

father’s side. She describes her brother as completely opposite to her: he does not like studying,

has behavior at issues and always gives problems to his family in school matters. They do not see

each other with frequency and it is something that extremely bothers her because she believes

they could help one another or at least share their lives as others families do. JL constantly

demonstrates a sort of discomfort with the reality in which she is immersed and tries to portray

that by drawing and doing graffiti. The support of her family is not as strong as she wished, but

always has a good attitude towards life and its challenges.

JL does not like her school since she considers that they could give the student a better

education. The programs are very basic from her point of view and they do not demand much

effort from the students to make enough improvement. However, her reality in economic matters

does not allow JL’s mother to send her to another High School (a private one as she has pointed

out). JL would like to have another kind of classmates and an environment with a more

intellectual mood.

Characteristics

JL is the kind of learner who worries about every single detail involved in her learning

process. She is responsible, attentive, enjoys acquiring new knowledge and has all the materials

organized during each lesson. Although she pays attention to the class, her friends tend to be

talkative and distract her; that is something she has criticized by her own and tries to control it.

Her participation is evident and completes any task given with success. JL loves to laugh

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whenever it is possible and makes a great environment among her group. She also plays a

relevant role for others as she controls her classmates’ behavior. Regarding her weaknesses, her

biggest enemy is frustration. JL is a sensitive girl who lives her emotions a 100% in all aspects;

therefore, if she feels frustrated, she suffers from some ‘blocking’ episodes in which everything is

negative from her perspective.

Particularly in English, her skills are being developed at great levels; since it is a difficult

subject, she takes it with an enormous challenge.

Strategies Applied

Classes in 2nd

grade C of INSUCO have gone through plenty of changes in the attempt of

trainees to improve the performance and interest of all students in the English subject; always

highlighting the importance of acquiring a second language and developing the skills required to

do it with complete success. Hence, written feedback has become a useful tool with an incredibly

positive response from the learners towards the system. In this term, the marks have been divided

into tests and workshops.

The following charts show JL’s results with the corresponding written feedback given by

the teachers:

Test:

3.8 We notice the lack of study for this test, but we know this is not a sample of

your work. Demonstrate your abilities!

In this particular case, the mark does not represent what the student really is and does. She

was overwhelmed because of this result and explained to the trainees that she was not in the

mood to study. JL has an important habit of study, andwhene she does not give it the

corresponding time, everything seems to be affected.

Workshops:

7.0 You are doing great!

5.5 Don't stop! Keep on the right track!

7.0 Excellent job!

5.9 Try to work harder for next one! We know you always want to reach the

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greatest results and surely you are able to do it.

7.0 Marvelous!

This chart accurately reflects what this student is capable to do. These grades correspond

to the workshops done within the class.

JL’s performance is quite regular, excepting when she feels invaded by frustration. In a

few occasions, her results have not being what she expected and as a first reaction, she blames

herself and underestimates her abilities. In order to avoid these episodes, teachers have decided to

reinforce her self-esteem whenever possible since she has an outstanding performance.

This girl is able to figure out by her own what is occurring in her learning process and

asks for help all the time, demanding clarifications as many times as necessary for her to go on

and therefore, allowing her results to be quite excellent in any task. After she reads her feedback,

JL looks for her dictionary to understand what is being transmitted by the teacher and then

socializes with them with the purpose of knowing what they believe about her performance in a

deeper perspective.

Besides, during workshops, JL is the kind of learner that makes sure she is going in the

right track with the intention to avoid ‘undesirable’ marks later, as she refers to any number

different from 7. It is a complete process: she analyzes the task, looks for the materials she will

need to complete it, starts working by her own without stopping reviews everything twice in case

she can do something else and, finally, begins asking for help in relation to the points she has had

troubles with.

2.3.2 Subject 2: CL–Acceptable Performance


CL is a 16, almost 17 year-old boy that is in 2nd

grade for the second time; a fact that

shapes his attitude and disposition in all possible senses concerning the classroom in which he is

now involved. He lives only with his father and never speaks about other people in family

matters. The school in general (teachers and students) tend to look at the ones who have failed a

grade with a lot of negative prejudices. At the beginning of the semester, his attitude belonged to

the bad side in every way as he claimed that nobody cared about his performance and marks, so

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there was no purpose to obtain better results. He still believes that is a sort of ‘load’ for the school

and even for his family.

CL wants to finish High School and take part of his father’s business (maybe to be in

charge of it) in order to avoid greater responsibilities in academic fields. Nevertheless, if the

circumstances gave him the opportunity to get further studies, he would choose a technical career

because it would take less time to end it. However, the main trouble he claims is that there is

nothing appealing to study; in simpler words, CL has not encountered something enjoyable to do

and, thus, study to become a professional. He does not like being in the school he is due to the

environment which is not pleasant at his eyes and everybody feels a sort of ‘right’ over him and

his behavior/performance. He has manifested in many occasions that his father is the one who

does not agree with another change of educational institution and, surprisingly, what his father

says is the only thing he really cares about.

Characteristics

This boy is the oldest in the 2nd

grade C classroom and that is the main reason why his

classmates respect him a lot. Sometimes, teachers confuse this attitude of respect from the other

students with ‘being afraid of’, nonetheless, it is clear they all care about CL. He has an

extremely strong personality which gives him a natural leadership within the group. CL bothers

his peers and receives jokes with a positive attitude as well; however, he tends to be conflictive

when something is not right from his viewpoint. He has a remarkable sense of justice and it does

not matter if he gets problems in his attempt to reach it (for him and for his classmates).

Depending on the day, he works and completes the tasks without much effort or talks and

laughs about everything leaving every academic activity apart from his plans. His leadership

could be either positive or negative, since when he wants to work everyone else does it and on the

contrary, when he prefers to be distracted doing something different, the rest also follows his

decision. The abilities this student has are incredibly advanced, but his interest has to be enough

to use them. His presence is always very strong and it is necessary to highlight that whether he is

paying attention or not, CL makes enormous contribution to the classes. CL’s marks are

considered ‘regular’, because most of the time he does not do his best and prefers to spend his

time doing something else.

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During English lessons, CL communicates with the foreign language and asks for

questions (related or not with the contents) with the purpose of figuring out more expressions and

information about it. CL has demonstrated how much he likes English, and has all the skills to

successfully acquire it.

Strategies Applied

As main strategy, again, written feedback is the chosen one. CL has an irregular

performance and that can be shown throughout his results. However, the comments given to him

have the intention to create awareness on the student about his amazing skills and encourage him

to use them. The change (improvement) desired for this student is not only in academics matters,

but in life. He has a great potential waiting to be used.

The following charts show CL’s results with the corresponding written feedback given by

the teachers:

Test:

5.0 You have a lot of potential, so start working harder and you will

improve!

This is the result of his first test. He did not study at all and, of course, did not know the

corresponding vocabulary that was asked on it. However, the parts related to reading

comprehension (deducing information, identifying details, inferring, etc) were completed without

problems.

Workshops:

3.0 This is not a sample of your work. I know you can do much better!

7.0 Great! That’s the way to work.

This student misses a lot of classes during the year and that is why he has less marks in

the workshops that are applied during the lessons. In the case of the low mark, CL did not want to

work in the task because he was mad with one of his classmates and did not want to be inside the

room. In the case of the highest mark, he worked in silence until everything was ready, without

further complications.

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CL issues with behavior have been a powerful drawback during the course of the facts in

relation to the English class. He is able to accomplish the tasks and obtain good results, but there

are occasions in which he does not demonstrate interest or motivation owing to he has serious

problems at school (CL is a ‘conditional’ student and always receives threats from his own

teachers about being removed from the institution).

Specifically in English, the teachers have tried to reinforce his advantages regarding the

language in a positive way and sometimes he notices himself that it is very easy to acquire the

foreign tongue with his conditions.

CL is the kind of learner who knows a lot without studying or reviewing the contents of

the lessons. Now that his grades have become a little better, he shows a sort of pride about his

success.

2.3.3 Subject 3: VG – Poor Performance


This student is a 15 year-old girl who lives with her mother, father and two brothers (she

is the youngest). Her mother worries about her performance and marks at school and always asks

for information regarding VG’s progress. However, she tries to hide the low results to avoid her

mother visiting the school.

VG has presented a medical certificate for depression and must be evaluated differently;

in fact, the doctor’s idea is to demand basic task accomplishment from this student. Nonetheless,

at least in the subject of English, the guide teachers do not pay attention to the suggestion of the

differentiated evaluation. She does not feel comfortable in the school because teachers pay too

much attention to every move she does (according to the own learner’s words).

Characteristics

At the beginning of the term, VG was completely out of training in academic matters and

did not care about any subject. If she obtained a 1, it was not a big deal for her. The student

preferred to sleep, draw or write about other things during the lessons so as to ‘kill the time’.

Often, she described the school as the worst prison, a continuous torture that took away all her

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time; a place to hate. Nonetheless, motivation has being increasing on her and now tries to

participate when she knows something or when the teachers ask her to help them.

VG has difficulties with concentration, but each day she struggles harder towards it. She

did not like English in a first stage due to it was ‘impossible’ for her to learn it. Apart from being

something hard for her, she claimed it was always presented in a boring way, so it was not

possible to accept it. Currently, she gets involved in this brand new foreign language world and

keeps attentive in every lesson. It is interesting to observe her behavior towards the trainees: if

they do the classes she tries to contribute whenever it is possible. Even when she does not know

exactly what to say or how to help, she collaborates with her silence and maintaining her focus on

the lesson. Her progress in every sense is remarkable.

Strategies Applied

Written feedback has been essential for VG. Her progress is outstanding and the main

reason is behind the already mentioned tool. She is the student who has valued and noticed the

positive effects of the corrections done, taking into account the advices and words given by the

trainees. VG has been able to identify her strengths and weaknesses, doing the corresponding

effort and a constant attempt to maintain the first ones and overcome the others.

The following charts show VG’s results with the corresponding written feedback given by

the teachers:

Test:

1.8 If you do the effort, you will surely obtain the best results!

This was the first evaluation taken by VG during the second term. She did not have

materials related to the subject; therefore, she did not have the contents that were going to be

asked on this. She decided to sleep after answering two out of thirty questions of the test. After

receiving the mark with the written feedback, she apologized with the trainees and promised to

do her best in the following evaluations.

Workshops:

6.3 You've got abilities to focus and work. Don'twastethem!

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7.0 Congrats! I hope you can see what you are capable of when you want to

do something.

1.0 Make sure you use your time wisely! Take advantage of your gifts.

7.0 Wonderful improvement!

These workshops marks are the sample of what VG is really able to do. In the case of the

lowest mark, she was frustrated because of an argument with one of the guide teachers.

Nevertheless, she did her best most of the time and the results talk by themselves. The aspect to

put emphasis on during the whole process of this particular student is that she struggled with her

weaknesses in every lesson, but always making sure her close friends were also working on that.

She is very proud of herself and has said that this is the first time she believes that English

is something ‘learnable’. The student has gained a lot of motivation to put into practice in all the

subjects and, most important of all, she shares the accomplishment with everybody. The key of

her change is the evolution she has had in terms of attitude and the already mentioned motivation.

VG is more interested on the contents reviewed during the lessons and has made a commitment

with the teachers and with herself to improve her performance even more.

At the beginning of the term, this learner was failing the subject and it seemed to be the

last word about it. Step by step, the context was modified by her decision to go over the

obstacles. Fortunately, an enormous transformation took place in her process and now she is

demonstrating everybody that it is possible to reach goals as long as you believe on them. Her

mother and other teachers are very pleased about her results and that is something even more

valuable.

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IV. ANALYSIS OF THE INFORMATION

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1. Analysis Subject’s Progress


Grade Elementary School

1.1.1 Subject 1: IG – Outstanding Performance

The student who had an outstanding performance was able to show improvement to some

extent. In other words, taking into account only the marks, it is hardly noticeable to visualize a

considerable ‘change’. This is due to the fact that her marks were almost perfect all the time.

Moreover, the changes of behavior were observed within the moments of instruction. If

she was a good and participative student, now she was even better and more actively

participative. Nonetheless, the fact that she comprehended she was becoming even better, also

brought negative effects regarding her relationship with her classmates. Owing to her brilliant

development, she became more competitive and wanted to embrace every single activity carried

out by the teacher/trainee.

IG was willing to intervene at all times and was more motivated. This is due to the fact

that she was encouraged by the messages/stickers handed in through the assessment procedures.

Also, the teachers could perceive a better reception of the English language and a more

acceptable attitude towards learning the second language every Friday. This was only improved,

since she demonstrated these aspects from the very first day.

Unfortunately, this generated some harsh climate sometimes, because the other students

complained that they also wanted to participate. Lastly, it was hard to try to cope with the needs

and desires of all of her classmates so as to satisfy everyone.

1.1.2 Subject 2: DR – Acceptable Performance

It the case of this boy, the progress was not so clear or evident at all. It was extremely

difficult to perceive a change of behavior. From this perspective, the student hardly ever showed

a better and more active participation in class. If he did, it was related to other aspects absolutely

incoherent to the topic being studied, reflecting a negative attitude towards the acquisition of the

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English language. In other words, attentiveness was not enhanced through the process of

delivering feedback and, sadly, no noticeable improvement regarding behavior was observed.

It can be said that, his concentration (in tests and during lessons) was not positively

influenced either. His most obvious progression could be observed in the sense that his marks

went up a little. Not much difference was made in his last average (up to the middle of the month

of October); nonetheless, almost every assessment procedure that was taken showed a little

improvement.

Additionally, it can be inferred that even though the strategies applied were the correct

ones (according to the parameters established by the authors in the theoretical framework), not

much progress can be obtained if there is not much effort or family support.

1.1.3 Subject 3: ES – Poor Performance

Clearly, the student that was observed in this case became more optimistic towards the

subject and his behavior changed completely in a very positive way. Suddenly, he was one of the

most actively participative pupils in the class. He turned out to be considerably more interested in

the classes; he finished all his tasks and asked whenever he had a doubt, always willing to ask

and clarify doubts..

As it was previously stated, he was very slow when writing from the board, but then

realized he had to be faster enough to prevent having the whiteboard erased before he finished

transcribing the exercises or vocabulary. At the beginning of the study, he did not want to copy

anything from the board, but then he was worried about being updated with the new contents.

As a conclusion, the progress was conspicuously observable and even the pupil was able

to visualize that he was becoming better at the English subject. Consequently, it can be concluded

that the strategies applied to this student were evidently the right ones to be used on him so as to

enhance his performance in the subject matter.

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1.2 Patagonia School– 6th


1.2.1 Subject 1: SL – Outstanding Performance

In terms of score and marks, the improvement of this subject could not be observed and

grasped entirely since his achievement was almost perfect in this matter. Nevertheless,

modifications took place in another area which is directly related to behavior: participation and

attention. Once little comments on her tests and activities done started to be given, this learner

began:

To behave as it is expected, according to school’s rules.

To bring every material needed into classes.

To being constantly connected to the lesson (not distracted).

To intervene more during the lessons by making contributions.

To approach the guide teacher and trainee when help was needed.

To help classmates who needed help.

Though the results were not perceived and given across the grades, they did go on

affective features of the student. From this perspective, it can be concluded that this emotional

type of learner needs sensitive stimulus and concern to value their performance at school, since

their academic (scores) field is already on its way.

1.2.2 Subject 2: IG – Acceptable Performance

In this case, the boy’s performance in English classes came to be enlarged, benefitting his

own results at school and generating some conclusions in terms of his academic and affective

progression.

First, his conduct and concentration during classes was upgraded since he showed himself

more attentive to exercises and activities and felt constrained to make regular contributions to

every lesson, at least more than it was perceived before. Along with this, his acts were proved to

be in accordance to the school’s rules as well.

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Second, the student started to bring his learning resources to classes. It was the case that

this learner was frequently found without notebook, course book or pencils. However, after

written feedback was introduced, all these utensils began to appear into the room little by little.

Although, these were not in the best conditions, they indeed complemented his work throughout

the English lessons.

To conclude it can be stated that, although his results did not show a clear evidence of

enhancement since they remained at the same levels, it is necessary to mention that written

procedures did have accomplished effect on the student’s affective features..

1.2.3 Subject 3: VA – Poor Performance

Evolution in her work was only achieved at some points, due to the fact that the

motivation to boost her performance during the instruction had its roots on academic

improvement. Since the grades of this student were very low, she started to pay more attention,

participate in class more frequently and complete the tasks appointed, yet not due to an intrinsic

interest for language acquisition, but only for not failing the subject.

Nevertheless, it was the written feedback strategies used with the student which made her

change her attitude towards the subject.Hence, the instruments designed were useful to attain the

previously set goals, confirming that corrective feedback helped her to improve her marks as well

as her attentiveness and disposition in the lessons.

1.3 INSUCO High School– 2nd

Grade High School

1.3.1 Subject 1: JL - Outstanding Performance

At the beginning of the term, JL pointed out how difficult it was for her to deal with

English as she considered she lacked the abilities to acquire the foreign language properly.

However, the student has being able to show her improvement by having an outstanding

performance and good results.

The crucial factor to generate the big change was the encouragement given by the

trainees. The reinforcement received allowed her to begin using English even to make jokes and

ask for help whenever it was necessary. JL has an active and essential participation during the

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lessons and her attitude towards the subject has changed in positive terms.Additionally, it is

important to highlight that this student always makes remarkable contributions to any

controversial topic, owing to her advanced and developed social conscience. Her enthusiasm and

interest in the subject area constant manifestation of her commitment towards her learning

process.

JL passed the subject without issues, making an enormous progress on her writing and

speaking of English. In addition, she has demonstrated her skill at reading comprehension as she

understands the ideas from written texts quickly and accurately. JL has shared her feelings of

pride with the trainees. As a concrete fact of her improvement, she has declared her interest on

going further on the study of the English Language so as to speak it fluently in the future.

1.3.2 Subject 2: CL – Acceptable Performance

CL’s progress is not clear due to he is not persistent with the tasks. His marks are good,

but they are not a reflection of what he is able to accomplish. CL is not a student that cares or

worries about his progress, but has been able to demonstrate a better management of the English

language even when the numbers do not show it in a hundred percent.

CL’s behavior has changed in terms of participation, which means that there is a bigger

interest in learning than before and that also helps his classmates. Finally, the moments devoted

to give him feedback have allowed teachers to notice he really wants to familiarize with the

foreign language.

Even though, he has not gone through a huge transformation as the other two individuals,

CL is now more aware of all the abilities he has developed. This is the best aspect in which he

showed advance, since his skills are being used with more frequency than before.

1.3.3 Subject 3: VG – Poor Performance

Out of the three subjects presented within this investigation, VG has the biggest and most

remarkable progress in all senses. Her marks have being improving class by class, her attitude

and motivation towards the subject are precise and even her behavior is in favor of her own

process of learning. The comparison between the mark obtained in the first evaluation and the

one received in the last one is the most reliable tool to support this fact.

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She has claimed that now there is a deeper interest from her viewpoint about English as

language and the cultures that belong to it. She has asked for information and says that maybe it

is possible to get involved in a world where English takes place as well. VG is more optimistic

and extremely graceful about the comments made by the teachers about her noticeable progress.

VG has acquired vocabulary, accomplishes every task given and maintains herself alert

during the whole class. She has developed the skills to put English into practice and is able to ask

frequently without fear of using the language. She is passing the subject with a complete success,

a 5.4 as an average mark, which is the factor that impacts on her motivation to move forward on

the achievement of a different way to communicate.

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2. General Analysis of the Grades



At the beginning, 2nd

“B” of the Villa Las Nieves School was characterized by being a

very enthusiastic class. They came every Friday with the highest of the motivations to learn

English. However, the issue of participation inside the classroom was poor. More particularly, it

was poor because the students had a hard time trying to remember what was taught from one

week to the next one. Commonly, they would come up with wrong answers due to the lack of

study habits during the school week.

Moreover, the guide teacher used to apply certain strategies that would help students very

much, but which unfortunately are obsolete nowadays. Then, when it was time for the trainee to

start teaching, she would combine those techniques with other types of strategies so as to

strengthen the learning process of the pupils.

In relation to their academic performances, they were rather good with certain exceptions.

Most of the children showed a noticeable progression through the year due to the collaborative

work performed by both, the guide teacher and the trainee.

It could be stated that academic improvement could be attained if feedback were provided

by teachers on due course, time, length, level of understanding and amount of it, considering the

authors who have investigated the subject matter.

2.2 Patagonia School– 6th


At the very beginning, this particular group composed by a number of 43 students,

showed no evident enthusiasm for English classes. During the first classes, it was noticeable the

learners’ lack of interest for the subject, which was reflected in the grades and behavior.

Although, there was an important number of the class who always contributed, most of

the learners did not participate of the lessons or assessments so as to meet the expectations of the

teacher. It is imperative to remark that the same group that used to participate during the lesson,

did well at evaluations; and, on the contrary, the group that displayed no interest and sympathy

for the English activities did not reach the goals when tested.

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The previous aspect affected pupils’ attitude directly because their discouragement was

shown through misbehavior throughout the lessons since they did not feel motivated. This also

triggered that several subjects did not open their notebooks or course books, did not have pencils

or pens, and did not bring any learning resource into the class.

Another disadvantage that used to affect and disturb students’ attention during classes was

the fact that there were various learners that needed an exclusive care due to their special

educational needssuch as: moderate intellectual disability, attention deficit disorder (ADD), and

specific learning disability. Keeping students’ attention was a hard issue to deal with, especially

in this group where various children used to behave and work as long as tasks were given as a

compulsory and graded assignment.

Thus, with all these variables working together, direct participatory observation and

monitoring were the first tools used so as to approach the students’ learning reality. These

instruments helped to reach a progressive approximation to the pupils; therefore, they came to

play a key role in their attitudes’ improvement and enthusiasm towards the subject. This constant

teachers’ attention and care was totally relevant since students started to develop a real concern

about their academic performance, resulting in a significant progress when participating, making

important contributions during English classes.

When the opportunity to give written feedback came, short comments were added to

written tests. These remarks were accompanied by short spoken observations from the trainee so

as to check if the kid was able to understand the information given, always providing the right

answers in the case they did not meet the expectancies.

The results were even higher than the ones expected. Though marks were not clearly

evident since only some showed improvement at this level, students’ concentration during classes

improved at higher levels due to more participation and contributions were made. Furthermore,

course books and other materials started to be brought into the class more frequently than before.

In effect, the element that did make the difference was the attitude towards the English subject: as

long as activities were motivating and engaging, students felt like opening their course books,

and bringing their materials into classes.

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2.3 INSUCO High School– 2nd

Grade High School

At the beginning of the period in which the research was developed, this class had serious

drawbacks in terms of performance. Among the students, apart from their low results, there was a

notorious lack of motivation and interest combined with the absence of expectations to overcome

their weaknesses. Then the work to be done inside the classroom was even more difficult, since

the scenario presented included a sort of ‘acceptance’ from the teachers. This last fact acted as a

negative factor to cooperate with learners’ improvement.

Likewise and concerning behavior, the environment of the classroom was always messy

and they could be defined as talkative and careless students at that time. Thus, trainees

implemented a system which was applied class by class: gaining points per lesson. Every day,

learners had to accomplish their tasks, bring their materials and behave themselves if they wanted

to gather all the points. These results would be transformed into a mark which later was going to

be calculated in a percentage with each test; it is important to point out that tests used to have low

grades.

Afterwards, the class was ready to start with the intervention. The process in which the

students entered consisted of: identifying the main issues (already mentioned above), changing in

the use of materials (from handouts to digital devices), modifying the rules related to marks

(workshops per class to obtain better results) and connecting the units of the programs to their

own lives and preferences as a method to call their attention. Step by step, and very gradually,

each individual started to feel part of his/her own learning process. The participation within the

lessons began to increase as well as the marks.

After almost four months of hard work, trainees and students became an excellent team.

Classes were more pleasant to learners and they managed to understand how essential their

participation was. Written feedback took a vital place in their improvement, since they anxiously

waited for the results accompanied with words that were personally addressed to. The results

were even more surprising in those students who were cruelly known as ‘the lost cases’; they

demonstrated to teachers and to themselves that the weaknesses could be overcome in a very

short period of time as long as they desired to do it. Learners said it was useful for them to have

‘a little push’ from the teachers to improve in every sense.

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In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the process, all the information stated above

will be supported by charts to show the results of the students and the corresponding feedback

given to them.

The evaluations consisted on written tests taken immediately after finishing the units

specified in the programs of the Ministry of Education. In the case of Unit Three, learners were

immersed in the world of social networks. The test already mentioned was composed of six

items,covering the following:

Contents:

- Vocabulary related to social networks (e.g. facebook, twitter, to write a post, to send a

message, to share a photo).

- Vocabulary related to personal relationships (e.g. boy/girlfriend, parents, and children,

to meet a person, to break up with someone, to fall in love).

In the case of the skill chosen to work with during the year (reading comprehension), the

aspects included were:

- To obtain general information from a written text.

- To recognize details from a written text.

- To infer information using a written text.

- To identify specific information inside a written text.

- To manage explicit and implicit information from a written text so as to answer

questions related to it.

The evaluation was taken during the third week of September and the result (mark)

obtained by each student in this test was accompanied with the written feedback given by the

teachers. (See Appendix 4)

Within the system of having workshops, implemented by the trainees, there are three

samples which demonstrate the incredible progress made by this particular class.

The first workshop was applied in the middle of August and corresponded to Unit Three,

as well. The task consisted of reading comprehension activities completion; learners had to read

an article and then answer a questionnaire according to the information presented. Trainees

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helped them to understand the questions and they could also use their dictionaries. However, the

results were surprisingly low in general terms. (See Appendix 5)

The second workshop was applied when September was meeting its end and corresponded

to Unit Three. The topics of the unit were contextualized and related to modal verbs. Students

had to complete a handout with the already mentioned grammar component by creating sentences

on their own. The results were regular, even though they were assisted by the trainees. (See

Appendix 6)

Last but not least, the third workshop was applied at the beginning of November and

corresponded to Unit Four. The Unit dealt topics related to means of communication and ways to

communicate. The task was carried out in the lesson involving ‘the magazine’; therefore, learners

were asked to design their own magazine, in which they included articles, opinions, topics they

liked and completed a chart detailing the specifications of their creation. This was the most

successful activity made by this class and all of them, without exceptions, obtained remarkable

and outstanding results due to their compromise and performance. (See Appendix 7)

In general, it could be seen that though the tasks appliedthere was a gradual process in the

understanding of the English language. Students from 2º C began the term with low grades and

poor performance owing to their lack of interest and motivation, but they managed to overcome

difficulties and closed the final marks with amazing outcomes. The effort and consistency shown

in the last few weeks were crucial to reach success.

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CONCLUSIONS

The subject matter under discussion and study, feedback, has proved to be controversial

and ambiguous. The Chilean classroom, teacher and learner are not aware of the relevant

advantages that this process can generate. It is under these circumstances that this study was

carried out, so the process of observation that took place at the beginning of this procedure was of

extreme importance. Having that in mind, the conclusions withdrawn are going to be focused on

the whole process of the study, considering the observation of the classrooms at first and the

entire research and implementation later.

In the first place, the background of the educational establishments says much about how

the teaching of English is applied. In all contexts observed and studied, scholars were not given

the amount of feedback as it was suggested by the authors investigated in the theoretical

framework. If it happened that feedback was delivered, the learners did not know how to interpret

it most of the time. What is more, they were not even able to decode and comprehend the text to

any extent. Taking the previously mentioned facts into consideration, the subjects intervening in

the process of feedback are, sadly, very much inexperienced according to the parameters offered

in the research done.

In the second place, and following the former idea, the instructors in charge of the classes

selected did not provide enough amount of feedback to students. In fact, most of them did not

even consider writing any comments about the students’ performances in an assessment

procedure (tests, quizzes, written dialogues, etc.). This fact makes the process of learning

problematic when it comes to realize what it is necessary to improve. On the other hand, if the

educators produced and gave feedback, this was provided in a way that was difficult or

impossible to understand, which probably originates an undesired effect on learners; because, as a

consequence, the pupils did not know how to react and take action in front of this confusing

situation.

Finally, and from the process of observation,it could be also concluded that students are

not able to be actively participants of their learning process. For instance, even when feedback

was delivered orally, they would not pay much attention to it or they would not react after it,

making the complete process of feedback pointless, since no change of behavior could be

appreciated.

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The reality is harsh: Chilean teachers are not used to the habit of providing written

corrective feedback for the sake of students’ enhancement. This might be due to the fact that the

issue of feedback is left aside as being an extra work performed by educators, which means extra

time that they sometimes do not have. It is at this level that some of those instructors prefer not to

‘waste’ time writing, and use these precious minutes in doing something more ‘productive’. If

corrective feedback were carried out in the proper way, it might facilitate the teachers’ work

afterwards. And, additionally, it could definitely be the most helpful instrument to be

implemented in order to improve the scholars’ performance.

Now that the issue under investigation has been identified, taking everything stated in the

paragraphs above, it is undoubtedly mandatory to specify the whole process to which the system

of education of our country must get into, so as to produce the changes required.

In a first stage, the plans and programs of the Ministry of Education of Chile are requested

to be adapted into a model that allows teachers to implement other methods to assess students;

one of them could be written feedback, which seems to be a tool able to transform the process

and results of the learners in a surprisingly positive way.

Unluckily, the Chilean system is so structured that has not allowed (and it will not do it

soon) to grade students in a way that does not involve a number. So, assessing and providing

feedback is, in a way, a meaningless process if it is considered that teachers only expect a

positive change of behavior by students. In other words, it can be thought that there is no point in

giving feedback whatsoever,if there are not going to be marks to show effective improvement.

With the transformation of the current educational standards, the next step belongs to

teachers. They have to develop certain skills to adjust written feedback to their lessons, creating a

comfortable learning process and atmosphere in which pupils feel confident about their aptitudes

and capacities. From the beginning of the year until the end of it, educators should gradually

apply the corresponding feedback in the learning process with the purpose of generating the

opportunity to socialize all the information later.

So far, this is an important instance of discussion that can lead to really positive effects

from the rapport established between the student and the teacher.This point includes the fact that

they ought to become more autonomous since they will have to take action on their own after the

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feedback is provided and comprehended. In simpler words, apart from identifying their

advantages and drawbacks, the scholars will also be able to know how to improve in certain areas

of the language.

Finally, written corrective feedback should be part of the essence of Chilean instruction,

involving all the educational establishments with commitment and in charge of their own

programs so as to give a suitable room for learners’ improvement, not only in the English subject

but in all the others as well.

In general, an appropriate and experienced view of feedback is needed in the Chilean

reality, where some environmental and personal components of the instructional background of

the learners need to be considered. The nature and quality of the intended written feedback

message promotes and boost the ultimate purpose in the process of learning a foreign language.

Moreover, it is fundamental to find out and gather information about the learner, coupled

with data about the learning expected outcomes, which can be used with the objective of gaining

knowledge throughout the development and adaptation of written feedback. Various kinds of

feedback (including type-written) could be modified and incorporated into a certain program and

then manipulated and delivered according to the personal circumstances of the students in

combination with the nature of the task and instructional goals.

Effective written feedbackis directly connected to what students are aimed to learn and to

the standards for attaining a successful learning. This complex process has the clear intention to

guarantee that students have a fair understanding of what they are expected to learn. In order to

accomplish that specific objective, instructors must state the learning as learning goals. That is to

say: short and concise statements, given in a language that is friendly towards the students, and

that describe what the students are supposed to know or be able to do at the end of the instruction.

Another element to bear in mind when it comes to reflect about the ideal written feedback

is that learners have to share with the teacher an open understanding of what is considered a

successful achievement of the learning goals. These success parameters also need to be

communicated in a friendly manner to the students. In effect, when feedback is connected to the

learning goals and success criteria, it contains all the expectations that pupils need to know so as

to progress in this long path of learning. Additionally, the ways in which feedback is delivered is

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going to affect, positively or negatively, the way in which students receive feedback.

Consequently, if this is carried out in a good manner, definitely, scholars will be able to take

action and show a positive evolution in their process of acquiring a second language.

What is more, by conveying what students are supposed to do and perform, teachers are

empowering them with an extra ability, being able to monitor their own progress and set

individual learning goals. This is going to benefit not only the English subject, but it will also

establish the strategies to do well in other subjects as well.

To conclude that, it is important to outstand that feedback has to be carried out throughout

the teaching performance as it can bring uncountable benefits into the learning process for both

teachers and students;this assessment tool also challenges the complex process of teaching a

foreign language in the Chilean formal education system.

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IMPLICATIONS

In order to achieve the main objective of the investigation and to find a sort of answer to

the question of how written feedback affects Chileans’ EFL classrooms, several aspects had to be

taken into consideration.

At the starting point, the process was based on the research of all the concepts needed to

have clarification so as to continue with the hypothesis. In this matter, building the theoretical

framework involved defining and re-defining the notions related to what we was known and what

was understood about language, second language, language acquisition, assessment and

feedback.

Immediately after having cleared a strong base, the methodological framework was

carried out. The present investigation is a qualitative one with two types of samples: 3 different

classrooms and 9 individuals in specific (3 per each class).

Regarding the process itself, it was mandatory to do further findings on the functionality

of Chilean classrooms in terms of feedback and the effects occurring in relation to it nowadays.

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LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

In this particular study, the research was carried out during the second term of the year

2013; this period occurs approximately between the third week of August and the beginning of

November. Owing to the previous fact, there was a series of unexpected inconveniences that

affected, in a negative way, the investigation process. The research had to change according to

the circumstances and the already mention inconveniences are the following:

1. Duration of the semester: the second semester that corresponds to college and school time

is extremely short. Consequently, the lack of time is a factor that influences negatively in

the process of the study. Although the whole research was adjusted to the time available,

in a better context with more weeks to work, the samples could have covered further

realities generating the opportunity for the investigators to reach other goals based on the

same objectives established at the beginning.

2. Holidays and classes missed: having the factor of time as a constant threat for the success

of the research and in addition to the previous point, the great number of holidays in the

second half of the year is noticeably high. There were long weekends and also a complete

week off to celebrate the National Day. As a result, the number of classes that one can

miss is considerable and worrisome. Moreover, each school has its own dates to devote

specific activities in special occasions: anniversary, internal evaluations, unexpected

events, etc. Logically, these two issues combined affect the procedure as the dates are

shortened and the timetable originally settled had to be modified to overcome this

particular drawback.

3. Lack of dominion: It is a fact that if the trainees doing the research are not in charge of the

classes that took part of the study, there is a potential lack of actions that could have been

done if the situation had been different. For instance, feedback might have not been

delivered as it was wished, because the dominion of the class was under the control of the

Guide Teachers. Even when teachers have a spectacular behavior of collaboration towards

these situations, there are programs and rules which must not be left behind and,

lamentably, sometimes trainees cannot manage them. Therefore, if the context was

another one where the student-teacher had played a more leading role inside the

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classroom, he/she could have provided feedback if given the chance to correct tests,

assess performances, design special activities and do a further work with the results

obtained by the tools applied within the classroom.

4. Restricted field: This specific aspect is related to the fact that this investigation complies

with the data of Villa Las Nieves School, Patagonia School and Instituto Superior de

Comercio High School; all of them corresponding only to the public system of education.

More particularly, the settings were not chosen by the trainees in charge of the study; they

were the ones settled to be their Practicum Centers. Having that in mind, it can be inferred

that other results could have been obtained and compiled if the types of schools had been

different. It would have been interesting to have had the experience of applying written

feedback in scenarios belonging to the private system so as to make comparisons later.

Then, further conclusions and even suggestions of changes would have appeared to

contribute in the improvement of either system.

5. Unexpected situations: Trainees are requested to have all their lessons planned with a

considerable anticipation in order to prevent improvisations that could meet in failures at

some point. However, it was a frequent happening that Guide Teachers and student-

trainees went through misunderstandings and consequent rearrangements of previously

established lessons. For example, trainees planned everything for a class to be done in a

certain way so as to deliver feedback of the students’ progression and the teacher made

some modifications to the lesson and the ultimate goal of the class could not be attained;

this had a direct impact in the fluency of the process. Additionally, in occasions, the

school missed classes due to different circumstances (internal and external) as it was

mentioned in point number 2 of this section.

6. Trainees’ inexperience: The procedure of giving feedback is rather new in comparison to

the experience that the student-teachers have had during the career. The procedure as an

assessment tool was barely suggested in previous terms, thus, it was not something known

for trainees to use. Besides, the data collected from the theoretical framework proposed

strategies that were innovative and hardly applied. What is more, authors said that this

was a field that had not been studied before. Accordingly, it can be inferred that there was

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not a specific and concrete way to deliver effective feedback. So, the student-teachers

only had a close notion but not a particular idea of how to provide feedback and somehow

experimented in the investigation. This peculiar point did not play a completely negative

impact on the process, since the future teacher had to manage new settings where they

could innovate.

7. Innovative process: This might seem to be a positive feature of the process; nonetheless,

the fact is that, supporting the previous point, neither teachers nor pupils are experimented

enough to deliver or receive feedback, respectively. That is the reason why, when the

instructors gave the corresponding comments after an assessment procedure, the students

did not know how to react or take action. As an attempt to solve this trouble, written

feedback had to be socialized with the purpose of giving the proper clarifications to

learners.

8. Students’ quantity: Also, the amount of scholars was an event that played against the

expectations that the trainees had about how to guide the study. Actually, that was why

pupils under investigation turned out to be only three chosen by the student-teachers. The

ultimate idea was to provide feedback and analyze the changes of behavior of the whole

class. Nevertheless, it proved to be impossible if the study meant to be more thorough.

When the time is limited, everything has to be adjusted to it.

140

RECOMMENDATIONS

As it has been discussed and analyzed, the issue of feedback is rather one that can be

modified owing to the circumstances, situation and level of students. Nonetheless, it is out of the

question that its importance is crucial. Moreover, its consequences are extremely relevant in the

students’ learning process.

However, through the theoretical framework research, it was verified that many authors

have different perspectives in relation to this subject matter. This is the reason why, further

reading is provided and suggested for the sake of clarification in certain particularities.

A list of references is recommended for further investigation about feedback as outlined

below:

1. ¿Para Qué dar Feedback? ¿Cómo hacerlo en forma efectiva? – Universidad del Cema

2. Educational Leadership, Seven Keys to Effective Feedback – ASCD

3. Review of Educational Research - John Hattie and Helen Timperley (University of

Auckland)

4. What is feedback? – Faculty Development (London Deanery)

5. Towards effective, feedback practices in Teacher Education - Gloria Latham

141

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147

APPENDICES

148

APPENDIX 1

Written feedback: Written Feedback applied on students’ test.

149

APPENDIX 2

Figures:

Figure 1. Originally taken from Síntesis de Resultados, SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012:

Figure 2.Originally taken from Wiliam, D. (2007).What does research say the benefits of

formative assessment are? The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics:

150

Figure 3. Originally taken from Growing Success, 2010:

Figure 4.Originally taken from Narciss, S. &Huth, K. (2004).How to design informative

tutoring feedback for multi-media learning. Psychology of Learning and Instruction:

151

APPENDIX 3

Graphics:

Graphic 1. Originally taken from Resultados, SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012:

Graphic 2. Originally taken from Resultados, SIMCE Inglés III Medio, 2012:

152

APPENDIX 4

Chart showing students’ marks on the first test taken during the second term.

STUDENT MARK FEEDBACK

Kassandra Alarcón 3.4 Your mistakes were only because of the lack of study.

You can improve a lot!

Nancy Alvarez 5.8 You’re getting better every day and this is a sample of

that. Good job!

D. Alvarez Sanchez 4.3 Whenever you want to work, you get good results.

Change your attitude and start improving! You can

obtain the best results.

Nicolas Arroyo 7.0 Wonderful! You are doing a great job!

Margarita Barria 4.9 You must study harder for the next test! Don’t let this

affects you. We know you are an excellent student!

Diego Barrientos 6.3 You should be proud of yourself! Quite of an

improvement!

Nicolás Campos 5.4 You are aware of your abilities, so try harder and

improve your results!

Daniela Cárdenas 4.3 We notice your effort during classes, but you should

work harder for next test. Take advantage of your

abilities!

Israel Cavieres 4.4 Your results will improve only if you want to! Try to

focus more and work by your own. We expect a lot

from you!

VerónicaDinamarca 7.0 Outstanding! Your results are showing your effort!

NikoDonicke 5.3 Good! We have noticed your effort to practice the

language. You’re on the right track!

YeseniaFarias 5.4 You have an extraordinary potential, so take advantage

of it. You will reach success in anything you want!

Ana Gaete 3.4 Focus more during the lessons! We know you could get

better results.

Jennifer Galvez 5.6 Good! Your hard work during classes is giving good

results, but you can always improve a little bit more.

Jorge Gómez 5.0 Use your abilities to work by your own! You have to

obtain better results than this.

Valentina González 1.8 If you do the effort, you will surely obtain the best

results!

153

Claudio Levill 5.0 You have a lot of potential, so start working harder and

you will improve!

Jezabel Lira 3.8 We notice the lack of study for this test, but we know

this is not a sample of your work. Demonstrate your

abilities!

Lucas Maldonado 4.9 You can combine having fun with focusing on the class.

You must pay more attention and improve your results!

Felipe Marilican 3.3 You should ask whenever you have doubts! We know

you can do better.

Fabiola Miranda 3.3 Do the effort and pay attention in classes. You have the

abilities and your success depends on you.

Jonathan Ricardi 3.7 You can participate more in classes to clear up your

doubts. Then, your results will be great!

Genesis Seron 5.5 Good! We notice your effort and you have improved a

lot. Keep on going with that attitude.

Luz Maria Soto 1.6 You have the abilities, so you should take advantage of

them!

Camila Trujillo 6.0 Your attitude and participation in classes are excellent.

Your results are better and better.

JavieraVivanco 4.9 Your participation and results this term have not been

the best. You can do a lot better, so start doing the

effort!

154

APPENDIX 5

Chart showing students’ marks on the first workshop applied during the second term

(middle of August).


Kassandra Alarcón 2.3 This is the result of your lack of responsibility in this

activity. We expect a lot more from you!

Nancy Alvarez 6.3 Great results! Keep on going in that track.

D. Alvarez Sanchez 1.0 Lack of responsibility that has to be eliminated!

Nicolas Arroyo 7.0 Perfect job! Congratulations!

Margarita Barria 5.5 Your work will always give you great results! Let’s improve

this one.

Diego Barrientos 7.0 Excellent!

NicolásCampos 7.0 Well done!

Daniela Cárdenas 5.5 You get better as days pass by. Keep that attitude!

Israel Cavieres 6.3 You should be proud of your improvement. Whenever you

work, we can tell!

VerónicaDinamarca 5.9 It is not a bad result, however you can do better. Let’s work

on it!

NikoDonicke 7.0 Great work!

YeseniaFarias 1.0 You have all the abilities to dominate English! Don’t let your

lack of responsibility affects your progress.

Ana Gaete 1.0 Try to accomplish the tasks required. Your results are great

when you work!

Jennifer Galvez 5.9 You are going on the right track!

Jorge Gómez 7.0 Perfect!

Valentina González 1.0 Make sure you use your time wisely! Take advantage of your

gifts.

Claudio Levill X X

Jezabel Lira 5.9 Try to work harder for next one! We know you always want

to reach the greatest results and surely you are able to do it.

Lucas Maldonado 4.4 Combine having fun during classes with hard work! You

have to improve this result.

Felipe Marilican 3.3 Don’t forget we are always expecting to help you, so ask for

it and let’s work together!

Fabiola Miranda 1.0 Try to overcome your lack of interest and let’s begin

155

working! You can obtain great results.

Jonathan Ricardi 3.8 You have to improve your results. It is good to take care

about the time during the tasks!

Genesis Seron 5.5 Keep working to obtain better results. You are capable of

much more!

Luz Maria Soto X X

Camila Trujillo 6.3 Great result!

JavieraVivanco 1.0 Pay attention to your attitude towards the activities and try to

change it. You are the owner of great abilities, so use them!

156

APPENDIX 6

Chart showing students’ marks on the second workshop applied during the second term

(end of September).


Kassandra Alarcón 4.2 You must bear in mind what you are capable of! Next

time, don’t be afraid to ask for help.

Nancy Alvarez 6.5 This is the way to do it! Good!

D. Alvarez Sanchez 7.0 Certainly, it's the way to work!

Nicolas Arroyo 7.0 Marvelous! Your dedication and attitude have given you

excellent results.

Margarita Barria 6.1 You are on the right track!

Diego Barrientos X X

NicolásCampos 4.0 You can get better results when you want to. Giveit a try!

Daniela Cárdenas X X

Israel Cavieres 4.8 Try to focus more and give some energy to your work

during classes.

VerónicaDinamarca 5.1 Your effort and attitude can have better results!

Keepgoing!

NikoDonicke 3.2 Clearly, this doesn't reflect your abilities. Keepworking!

YeseniaFarias 7.0 Super! Keep up the good work!

Ana Gaete 5.1 Don't give up! It's just the beginning

Jennifer Galvez 6.1 You're getting it! On the right path!

Jorge Gómez 5.6 You know you can get it! Goforit!

Valentina González X X

Claudio Levill 3.0 This is not a sample of your work. I know you can do

much better!

Jezabel Lira 6.5 Keep working! You got the right attitude!

Lucas Maldonado 6.1 Great effort! You can improve even more!

Felipe Marilican x X

Fabiola Miranda x X

Jonathan Ricardi 5.0 Your effort has allowed you to manage all your drawbacks.

This result is a sample of that! Keep working hard and you

will get even better results.

Genesis Seron 5.2 Step by step you have improved a lot! Maintain that

157

attitude during classes and never give up.

Luz Maria Soto 5.7 You say English is not for you, but you are very good at it.

Give it a try and start improving your results.

Camila Trujillo 6.5 Keep on trying! Continue working like this!

JavieraVivanco 7.0 Great! It's the way to do it!

158

APPENDIX 7

Chart showing students’ marks on the third workshop applied during the second term

(beginning of November).


Kassandra Alarcón 7.0 Excellent! You have demonstrated how well you are

able to work.

Nancy Alvarez 7.0 Great job and perfect result! Your skills at English are

talking by themselves.

D. Alvarez Sanchez 7.0 Wonderful! Try to focus in the activities during classes

to obtain more of these!

Nicolas Arroyo 7.0 Perfect! Congratulations Nicolás, you performance has

being outstanding during the whole term.

Margarita Barria 7.0 Super! Your effort is remarkable and we can notice how

much you care about your performance. Congrats!

Diego Barrientos X X

NicolásCampos 6.8 Well done! Take advantage of your abilities in English

and maintain your results.

Daniela Cárdenas 6.8 Very good! Congratulations on the amazing progress

shown during these months.

Israel Cavieres 6.8 Good! You can always have excellent results if you

propose to.

VerónicaDinamarca 6.8 Very good! Your performance and attitude towards your

responsibilities are working in all senses!

NikoDonicke 6.8 Good! Congratulations for your results and for

overcoming every drawback.

YeseniaFarias 7.0 Amazing! Don’t lose focus and you will receive tons of

these results.

Ana Gaete 7.0 Outstanding!

Jennifer Galvez 7.0 Excellent result!

Jorge Gómez 6.8 Very good!

Valentina González 7.0 Wonderful improvement!

Claudio Levill X X

Jezabel Lira 7.0 Marvelous!

Lucas Maldonado 7.0 Great job!

159

Felipe Marilican 7.0 Amazing!

Fabiola Miranda X X

Jonathan Ricardi 7.0 Excellent! Keepthatattitude!

Genesis Seron X X

Luz Maria Soto 7.0 Great job!

Camila Trujillo 7.0 Perfect!

JavieraVivanco 7.0 Wonderful!

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