L’integrazione scolastica degli alunni con Disturbo …...I temi oggetto del presente modulo...

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L’integrazionescolasticadeglialunniconDisturbodelloSpettro

Autistico

Dott.Daniele Rizzi,Psicologo,BCBADott.Alessandro Dibari,Psicologo,BCBADott.ssaEricaScandurra,Psicologa,BCBA

Maggio– Giugno2017

Strategieperl’insegnamentodinuovicomportamenti

Dott.DanieleRizzi– Psicologo-BCBADott.AlessandroDibari-Psicologo-BCBADott.ssaEricaScandurra– Psicologa-BCBA

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Ringraziamenti

Ilmaterialecontenuto inquesteslides èbasatosullavoro,traglialtri, delDott.Carbone, Dott.Sundberg,Dott.Fisher, Dott.ssaPiazza.Laconcettualizzazione

delle“motivating operations” èbasatasullavorodelDott.Michael.Lasezione“response prompt” èstataconcessadalDr.Fisher(Munroe-Meyer

Institute – University ofNebraskaMedical Center)

• Ipotizzando lapresenzadicontrolloistruzionale dapartedell’insegnantesulcomportamentodelpropriostudente(lezioniprecedenti)…

• …saràpossibileutilizzarelestrategiedescritteperinsegnarenuovicomportamenti…

• …utilizzandocorrettamenteilprincipiodelrinforzoperaumentarnelafrequenza(lezionisuccessive)

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Step perinsegnarenuovicomportamenti

• Identificareilrisultatofinaledaraggiungere• Identificareglistep necessari• Identificarequalisonogliaiutidadare• Sceglierelastrategiadiinsegnamentoefficace• Rimuoveregliaiutiappenapossibile• Rinforzarerisposteversol’indipendenza

OutlineI temi oggetto del presente modulo saranno:

1. Definire edareesempidiprompt2. Definire edareesempidiprompt distimolo(stimulus prompt)3. Insegnareunanuovaabilitàutilizzando eriducendo lostimulus prompt4. Definire edareesempidiprompt dellarisposta(Response Prompt)5. Insegnareunanuovaabilitàutilizzando eriducendo ilprompt dirisposta6. Descrivereedimostrare l’usoappropriato delloshaping7. Descrivereedimostrare usoappropriato delmodeling8. Descrivereedimostrare usoappropriato delvideomodeling e

videoprompting9. Descriverel’usoappropriato delchaining10. Definire lataskanalysis diunparticolare comportamento11. Descrivereconcatenamento anterogrado, retrogrado, total task

presentation

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Obiettivo1Definireedareesempidiprompt

Definizione• Ilpromptè uno stimolo aggiuntivousato perevocare uncomportamento target

• Ilcontrollo esercitato dalpromptdeve esseretrasferito agli stimoli rilevanti ed il promptdeve essere eliminato

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Usodelprompt perinsegnareladefinizionediprompt

• Ilpromptè uno stimolo aggiuntivousato perevocare uncomportamento target.

• Ilcontrollo esercitato dalpromptdeveessere trasferito agli stimoli rilevanti ed ilpromptdeve essere eliminato

ATTENZIONE!• Compitodell’insegnante: ridurreefficacemente ilprompt finoalasciarecheilcomportamentoavvengainpresenzadeisolistimolinaturalipresenti

• Esempio:– Comportamento:Scrivereilproprionome– Stimolo: leletterechecompongonoilmionomesonotratteggiate sulfoglio

– Domanda:quandodovròscrivereilmionome,troveròlelineetratteggiate sulfoglioinognicircostanza?Funzionacosìnellavitareale?

– NO:alloraleletteretratteggiate sonounprompt

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Esempio

• Comportamentotarget:indossareilgiubbino• Stimolirilevanti:vistadelgiubbino+motivazioneaduscire

• Stimoliaggiuntivi(prompt):indicareilgiubbino,aiutarelostudenteadinfilarelamanonelgiubbino,direallostudente “chiudilazip”…

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IPROMPTVANNOEILMINATI!Inalcuni casi una risposta viene emessa,maaffinchè questoavvenga c’è bisogno diuno stimolo aggiuntivo• Es.Unbambinocompleta una addizione soloseil posto

dovescrivere il risultato è evidenziato.Senonèevidenziato noncompleta l’operazione

• Inquesto caso l’insegnante dovrebbe– Evidenziare il posto dovescrivere il risultato inunprimomomento

– esuccessivamente trasferire il controllo della risposta“risultato”

• Dalposto evidenziato alposto nonevidenziato

• Stimoli aggiuntivi (inquesto caso evidenziare il risultato)sono detti prompt.Usare promptpertrasferire ilcontrollo diuncomportamento dauno stimolo adunaltro è una procedura chiamata trasferimento dellostimuluscontrol

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Trasferimento dello StimulusControlIpromptsono usati generalmentedurante l’acquisizioneedevono essere eliminati esostituiti congli stimoli chenormalmente controllano il comportamento

Ilprocesso diriduzione (fading)delpromptèdettotrasferimentodellostimuluscontrol

Saper usare tecniche ditransferdello stimuluscontrolèuna delle più importanti abilità diuninsegnante

TipologiediPrompt

Iprompt sidividonoin:

• Stimulus prompt (prompt distimolo)

• Response prompt (prompt dirisposta)

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Obiettivo2DefinireedareesempidiPrompt diStimolo(stimulus prompt)

C-08Implement stimulus controltransferprocedures

DefinizionediStimulus promptLostimuluspromptconsistenelcambiamento diuno stimolo ol’aggiunta/rimozionediunostimoloperrendereuna risposta più probabile

1. Cambiamento intrinseco (Within-Stimulusprompts): è uncambiamento inalcuni aspetti dello stimolo,percontrollare larisposta target.Questo tipo dipromptpuò coinvolgere ilcambiamento nella dimensione,forma,intensità,coloreetc…dello stimolo (Miltenberger,2000)

2. Cambiamento estrinseco (ExtraStimulusPrompts): consistenell’aggiuntadiuno opiù stimoli perevocare larisposta target

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Esempio

• Stimulus prompt (sonocollegatidirettamenteallostimolo):– Cambiamentointrinseco(Within stimulusprompt):scrivereilnomedellostudentesullatarghettadelsuo giubbino selostudentenonriesceatrovarlo

– Cambiamentointrinseco(Extrastimulus prompt):mettereuncartellinoconilnomedellostudentesulsuo giubbino senon riesceatrovarlo

Nonesempio

• OgnivoltacheCristianocolorafuoridaimarginil’insegnantedice“Attento,coloradentro”

• OgnivoltacheChiarasiallontanadalcerchiol’insegnanteledice“Chiaratornanelcerchio”

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• Video1e2

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS AND EFFICIENCY OF TWOSTIMULUS PROMPT STRATEGIES WITH SEVERELY

HANDICAPPED STUDENTS

MARK W. STEEGE, DAVID P. WACKER, AND COLLEEN M. MCMAHONTHE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA

In this study we compared the effectiveness and efficiency of two treatment packages that usedstimulus prompt sequences and task analyses for teaching community living skills to severelyhandicapped students. Four severely and multiply handicapped students were trained to performfour tasks: (a) making toast, (b) making popcorn, (c) operating a dothes dryer, and (d) operatinga washing machine. Following baseline, each student was exposed to two types of training procedures,each involving a task analysis of the target behavior. Training Procedure 1 (Traditional) utilized aleast-to-most restrictive prompt sequence. Training Procedure 2 (Prescriptive) utilized ongoingbehavioral assessment data to identify discriminative stimuli. The assessment data were used toprescribe instructional prompts across successive training trials. Performance on the tasks wasevaluated within a combination multiple baseline (across subjects) and probe (across tasks) design.Training conditions were counterbalanced across subjects and tasks. Results indicated that bothtraining procedures were equally effective in increasing independent task acquisition for subjects onall tasks; however, the prescriptive procedure was the more efficient procedure.DESCRIPTORS: stimulus prompts, behavioral assessment, severely handicapped

A common feature of many community livingtraining procedures is the use of a least-to-mostintrusive instructional prompt sequence (e.g., Cuvo& Davis, 1983). This involves first allowing sub-jects to respond to naturally occurring discrimina-tive stimuli, followed by the trainer sequentiallyinitiating more restrictive levels of prompting (e.g.,verbal, model, gestures, physical assistance) untilthe subject exhibits the desired response. Transferof stimulus control from trainer-delivered promptsto naturally occurring stimuli may be facilitated byreinforcing progressive performance on the targettasks with gradually reduced trainer assistance.However, Snell and Browder (1986) suggested thatacquisition of performance under such a prompthierarchy can be slow because not all errors can beprevented and because prompts sufficient to occa-

The authors extend their appreciation to the staff andstudents at Monroe School and to Dawn Rolands. Specialthanks are extended to Brian Iwata for his comments on anearlier version of this investigation. This manuscript is basedon the Ph.D. dissertation completed by the first author.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Mark W. Steege,Division of Developmental Disabilities, The University ofIowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242.

sion responding are presented only after less re-strictive prompts have failed.Our investigation was conducted to compare two

variations of the least-to-most restrictive promptsequence on complex community living tasks withseverely handicapped students. The first variation,termed the traditional method, was a six-step least-to-most restrictive prompt sequence in which thestudents always received instructional prompts inthe same hierarchical order. This procedure wasselected for two reasons: (a) it is a frequently usedprocedure in training community living skills (Cuvo& Davis, 1983), and (b) teachers at the investi-gation site used the procedure routinely. The secondvariation (prescriptive method) involved presentinga level of prompting for a task, which, accordingto ongoing assessment ofthe students' performance,had been previously sufficient to occasion respond-ing. This prescriptive method was similar to a pro-cedure for teaching self-feeding skills (O'Brien &Azrin, 1972). The comparison of the two prompt-ing sequences was based on measures of both ef-fectiveness (task acquisition and maintenance) andefficiency (trials to criterion, wasted prompts, andcumulative duration of training).

293

1987,201,293-299 NUMBER 3 (FALL 1987)

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MARK W. STEEGE et al.

TRIALS

BASE- TRAINING POSTTRAININGLINE

I Prescriptive II I ~~i 1I ~~~~~~~~~~~~II II II

MAINTENANCEaix sixWEEK MONM HOWPROSE PR E E

Ls ________ __, ______lTraditional I

I Traditional

*--*I-I I

_

I Pracriptiva -.

_ l j * * * @*i . . # ~~~I IIII

296

MAINTENANCEJOHN

100g 80

0cra 60400

0.A 4020

100hailo -

0.I 20

100

20

ao0

0 0. 20

MATT

100-

soo 80-aM JA1 40 -

20-

100-

100 -

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2r 0.20

100 -

I I

1 3 5 7 a II 13 ta 17 1 21 23 20 27 sa 31 33so337 3 41 43 40 47 4 a1 s a 07s aia1TRIALS

Figure 1. Performance across tasks for John and Matt.

.

ASR1• Indicareperqualicomportamentiuseresteunostimulus

prompt (NB.Glistimolichecontrollanoilcomportamentodevonopoteresserealterabiliodobbiamopoteraggiungeredeglistimolichegiàcontrollanoilcomportamento)– Colorareneimargini(qualèlostimolochecontrollailcolorareneimargini?Èmodificabile?)

• V• F

– Tirareacanestro• V• F

– Infilareperlineinunfilo• V• F

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ASR2– Identificarelepropriescarpetratante

• V• F

– Versarel’acquainuncontenitorefinoaduncertopunto

• V• F

– Schiacciare dellenociusandoloschiaccianoci• V• F

– Attraversarelastrada,inunastradavera.• V• F

Obiettivo3Insegnareunanuovaabilitàutilizzandoeriducendolostimulus prompt

C-09Implement stimulus fadingprocedures

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Utilizzo erimozionedello stimuluspromptdello stimulusprompt

StimulusFading: lagraduale riduzione diunacaratteristica dello stimolo che è stata inorigineenfatizzata,finchè larisposta avviene solosottoil controllo dello stimolo naturale

Stimulus prompt:esempio

ROSSOROSSOROSSOROSSO

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EFFECTS OF WITHIN-STIMULUS AND EXTRA-STIMULUSPROMPTING ON DISCRIMINATION LEARNING IN

AUTISTIC CHILDREN'LAURA SCHREIBMAN

CLAREMONT MEN'S COLLEGE

Two different prompting procedures to teach visual and auditory discriminations toautistic children were compared. The first involved presenting an added cue as an extra-stimulus prompt. This required the child to respond to both prompt and training stim-ulus. The second involved the use of a within-stimulus prompt. This consisted of anexaggeration of the relevant component of the training stimulus and thus did not requirethat the child respond to multiple cues. The results indicated that (1) children usuallyfailed to learn the discriminations without a prompt, (2) children always failed to learnwhen the extra-stimulus prompt was employed but usually did learn with the within-stimulus prompt, and (3) these findings were independent of which modality (auditoryor visual) was required for the discrimination.DESCRIPTORS: autistic children, discrimination training, fading, prompt, stimulus

control, stimulus overselectivity

It has been assumed that autistic children canlearn from prompting procedures, but there is noreason to believe that procedures useful in teach-ing normal children will work with autisticchildren. Thus, despite reports of successful useof prompts and prompt-fading with autisticchildren (e.g., Ferster and DeMyer, 1962;Lovaas, Berberich, Perloff, and Schaeffer, 1966;Lovaas, Freitas, Guilani, Nelson, and Whalen,1967; Metz, 1965; Risley and Wolf, 1967),several studies indicate that serious difficultiesmight be encountered when using this tech-nique. Several investigators (e.g., Acker, un-published; Koegel, unpublished; Sidman andStoddard, 1966) have presented evidence indicat-ing that autistic children often fail to transferfrom prompts. Further, in many of the successfulreports cited above, the authors reported con-

'This research was supported by PHS ResearchGrant No. 11440 from the National Institute ofMental Health. The author is very grateful to 0.Ivar Lovaas for his many contributions to this work.Appreciation is also expressed to Robert Koegel forhis suggestions and comments on an earlier draft, toBijan Guilani and W. J. Dowling for their helpfulcomments, and to Samuel Chan and Thomas Willisfor their aid in data collection. Reprints may be ob-tained from Laura Schreibman, Department of Psy-chology, Claremont's Men's College, Claremont, Cali-fornia 91711.

91

siderable difficulty in achieving success with theprompt procedure (personal communication).

Recent research in the area of selective atten-tion in autistic children may help to explain whythese children do not always show transfer. Thisresearch indicates that autistic children havedifficulty responding to simultaneously presentedcues. Lovaas, Schreibman, Koegel, and Rehm(1971) employed a discrimination learning taskin which autistic, retarded, and normal childrenreceived reinforcement for pressing a bar in thepresence of a complex stimulus involving thesimultaneous presentation of a visual, an audi-tory, and a tactile cue. Once this discriminationwas established, elements of the complex stim-ulus were presented singly on test trials todetermine which component had acquired con-trol over the child's behavior. Autistic childrencharacteristically responded to only one of thecomponents. In contrast, normal children re-sponded uniformly to all three cues, while re-tarded children fell between these extremes. Theresults were considered to demonstrate "stimulusoverselectivity", whereby autistic children areoverselective in attention and have trouble learn-ing to respond to stimuli in context. Stimulusoverselectivity has also been found when twostimuli (auditory and visual) are employed

1975, 83, 91-112 NUMBER 1 (SPRING 1975)

LAURA SCHREIBMAN

cated on the left side of the figure. Part 1 in thefigure shows the subject's performance on thediscrimination when no prompt was provided.Per cent correct response appears on the ordinateand blocks of 20 trials appear along the abscissa.It can be seen that Marty did not learn thediscriminations without a prompt. His responsesall fall within chance level.

Parts 2 and 3 in the figure show the data forthe two prompting conditions in the order theywere presented. In the upper half of Figure 4,Part 2 shows his performance when the extra-stimulus prompt was added. The size of thefading step is presented on the ordinate. Blocksof trials are plotted along the abscissa. A "C"indicates a block of five consecutive correct

responses. An "I" indicates an incorrect trial oc-

curred before five correct responses. (If thesubject erred, he was returned to the prompt

level where he was last correct.) As can be seen

in the figure, Marty did not transfer to the 1/4prompt level even after the fading steps were

as tiny as physically possible, as can be seen inhis failure to transfer during blocks 24 to 28.

His performance on the discrimination of thestick figures using the within-stimulus promptingprocedure is presented in the upper half, Part 3.This graph is plotted in a similar manner as theextra-stimulus procedure. The fading steps arepresented on the ordinate by double numbers.The first number refers to the phase of fading;the second number indicates the fading stepwithin the phase. (These steps correspond tothose in Figure 3.) As can be seen in the figure,Marty learned with the help of the within-stim-ulus prompt procedure. He had some difficultywhen the redundant stimulus component was

introduced (Phase 3, Steps 1 and 2).

Part 1

100No prompt

100-C0

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Part 2Extra-stimulus prompt

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5 1 15 20 25 30

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Blocks of20 trials

3-5-4-3.

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Part 2Within-stimulus prompt

PC;.ccccc

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Part 3Within-stimulus prompt

cc

CCICI^CItc~cII CCC

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5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Part 3Extra-stimulus prompt

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Fig. 4. Marty's data on the visual discriminations. The upper half of the figure shows the subject's perform-ance on the first visual task, the lower half of the figure shows his performance on the second visual task. TaskS+ stimuli are presented on the left. Part 1 of each task presents the subject's performance during the no-prompt condition. Blocks of trials appear on the abscissa and per cent correct responses on the ordinate. Parts2 and 3 show the data for the prompt conditions in the order they were presented. Blocks of trials are pre-sented on the abscissa and fading steps on the ordinate. A "C" indicates a block of five correct responses. An"I" indicates an error occurred before five correct responses.

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Esercitazione1(insieme)• Insegnareacolorareneimarginiriducendolostimulus prompt,che(inquestocaso)consistenelprepararedeimarginigiàcolorati,spessi4cm.

• Indicarelivellisuccessividistimulus prompt (dovetediminuirealcunedimensionidellostimulus prompt finoadeliminarlo)

• Indicarequalirinforzisiuserannoeicriteriperusodelrinforzodifferenziato

• Sviluppareunaschedadipresadatipervisualizzarelerispostedellostudentenelprogramma

RaccoltadatiSchedaesercitazioneSTIMULUSFADING

1

2

3

4

Obiettivofinale:

STIMULUSPROMPTUSATO:

Creareunaschedadiregistrazioneconleinformazionirilevanti

Data OperatoreRiduzionestimuluspromptusata Numerodierroriemesso

sucessoraggiunto(SI/NO)

Riduzionidellostimulusprompt(ridurredopo3sessionicon0-1erroredellostudente)

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SchedaesercitazioneSTIMULUSFADING

1 Bordi4cm

2 Bordi3cm

3 Bordi2cm

4 Bordi1cm

Obiettivofinale:colorareneimarginiconerroremaxdi1cm

STIMULUSPROMPTUSATO:bordicolorati


Data Operatore

Riduzionestimulusprompt

usata Numerodierroriemesso

sucesso

raggiunto

(SI/NO)


si

02-ago AD bordi4cm 0 si

01-ago AD bordi4cm 1


04-ago

05-ago

06-ago

07-ago

08-ago

SchedaesercitazioneSTIMULUSFADING

1 Bordi4cm

2 Bordi3cm

3 Bordi2cm

4 Bordi1cm

Obiettivofinale:colorareneimarginiconerroremaxdi1cm

STIMULUSPROMPTUSATO:bordicolorati


Data Operatore

Riduzionestimulusprompt

usata Numerodierroriemesso

sucesso

raggiunto

(SI/NO)


si


01-ago AD bordi4cm 1


04-ago bordi3cm 0 si



07-ago

08-ago

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Esercitazione2(Ingruppo)• Laurastaimparandoacompletare sottrazioni incolonna conilprestito• Duranteiprimitentativi siosservache,nonostante lespiegazioni

dell’insegnante, Lauranonstaimparando:– Doveposizionareladecinachiesta“inprestito”– Doveriscrivere ladecinadopoaverchiestoil“prestito”

• L’analisi :glistimolirilevanti nell’operazione scritta noncontrollano ilcomportamento dicompletare l’operazione correttamente

• Ipotesidiintervento:aggiungereaglistimolirilevanti chepossanoesseregradualmenterimossi

• Creareunsistemadistimulus prompt (quali stimoliaggiuntiviusereste)estimulus fading(comeequando eliminerete gradualmenteglistimoliaggiuntivi)perindicare aLauradovescriverecorrettamente idiversipassaggidell’operazione

Obiettivo4Definireedareesempidiprompt dellarisposta(Response Prompt)

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Definizionidiresponse prompt

1.Promptverbale- il comportamento verbalediuna secondapersonacontrolla l’emissionedelcomportamento targetdellostudente,inpresenzadell’SD

2.Promptgestuale-ognimovimentoogesto diuna secondapersonacontrolla l’emissionedelcomportamento targetdellostudente,inpresenzadell’SD

3.Promptdimodello-ogni dimostrazionedell’azionetargetdapartediuna secondapersonacontrolla l’emissionedelcomportamento targetdello studente,inpresenzadell’SD.Lostudenteosserva il comportamento delmodello eloimita

4.Promptfisici- L’assistenza fisicadiuna secondapersonacontrollal’emissionedelcomportamento targetdello studente,inpresenzadell’SD.Disolito consistenella guidamanosumano incuil’educatoreguida lostudentenell’emissionedelcorrettocomportamento

Esempidiresponseprompt• Response prompt (NB:sonocollegatialcomportamentodell’insegnante),ordinatiinbaseallivellodiintrusività:– Verbali:(es.dire:“chiudilazip”)– Gestuali(es.indicarelazip)– Dimodello (es.l’educatorechiudelazipdelsuogiubbinomentrelostudenteloguarda)

– Fisici (l’educatoreaiutamanualmentelostudenteachiuderelazipdelgiubbino)

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Esempidiresponseprompt• Scenario:trovareilnomecomunedipersonanellafrase“Danielegiocaconlapalla”– Verbali:(es.dire:“IniziaconlaletteraD”)– Gestuali(es.indicareilnome“Daniele”)– Dimodello (es.l’insegnantemodellacomesottolineareilnome“Daniele”suunasecondafrase)

– Fisici (l’insegnanteguidamanosumanoilbambinonelsottolineareilnome)

ASR3• JameschiedeaFrancescodiprendereilsuogiubbinoperchébisognatornareacasa.CisonotantigiubbinieFrancescononsiricordaqualèilsuo.Jamesglieloindica– Prompt verbale– Prompt dimodello– Prompt gestuale– Prompt fisico

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ASR4• Carladeveimparareanuotareinstiledorso.Fabrizia,con

unamano,lesorreggelaschiena,tenendolaagalla– Prompt verbale– Prompt dimodello– Prompt gestuale– Prompt fisico

• GiovannamostraaRiccardocomeimpugnarelapennacorrettamente.Riccardoprendelasuapennaedimitaperfettamenteilmovimento– Prompt verbale– Prompt dimodello– Prompt gestuale– Prompt fisico

Obiettivo5Insegnareunanuovaabilitàutilizzandoeriducendoilprompt dirisposta

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41

Eliminare i prompt

Ipromptsono usati generalmente durantel’acquisizione edevono essere eliminati esostituiti congli stimoli che normalmentecontrollano il comportamento

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Comeeliminare il prompt

Esistono 2modi pereliminare i promptdirisposta (responseprompt)

• PromptFading(sfumare il prompt)• PromptDelay(ritardare il prompt)

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SFUMAREILPROMPT(promptfading)

Promptfading: ridurre gradualmente lostimoloantecedente inprovesuccessive,finchè il promptnonè più presente ele risposte avvengono sottoilcontrollo degli stimoli naturali (MartinandPear‘92)

Es.Ridurre il promptvocaleperl’etichettamento “scarpa”attraverso Iseguenti steps:

– Scarpa– Sca…– Sc…– S…

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Tipidiproceduredifadingdiresponseprompt

A. MosttoLeastpromptfading(diminuire l’assistenza):Viene usato il promptpiù intrusivo perprimo,poivieneridotto ed eliminato.(mosttoleast=“dalmaggiore alminore”)

B. LeasttoMostPromptFading(aumentare l’assistenza):Viene usato il promptmeno intrusivo perprimo,poiviene ridotto ed eliminato (leasttomost=dalminorealmaggiore)

C. GraduatedGuidancePromptFading:Ipromptvengonousati solodovenecessario.L’insegnante segueimovimenti dello studente comeun’ombra,inmodo dapoter dareil prompteridurlo immediatamente.(graduatedguidance=guida graduata)

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45

Diminuire l’assistenza (mosttoleast)Quando si insegna aduno studente aseguire un’istruzioneperselezionare unoggetto, il terapista utilizzerà promptfisico totale perassicurare che lostudente mostri larisposta corretta inpresenza dell’ istruzione.

Dopo undeterminato numero dirisposte corrette CONILPROMPTFISICOTOTALE(il numero varia inbaseallostudente) l’insegnante riduce il promptfisico totale,passando adunpromptparziale, adunpromptdiindicazione eriducendo ancora fino araggiungere il solocontrollo dell’istruzione.

Ilmost toleast prompting èchiamatoancheinsegnamentosenzaerrori

Diminuire l’assistenza (mosttoleast)

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Insegnamentosenzaerrori.NONESEMPIO

Vincenzo,ilterapistadiDanielevuoleinsegnareaDanieleadetichettare unpianoforteGlimostralafotoeglichiede“Checos’è?”.Danielenonricordailnomediquestostrumentoenonglirisponde.Vincenzoinsiste:“Dailosai,tel’hodettoieri,concentrati!”Danielenonglirisponde.VincenzocontinuaadincitareDaniele:“Maèpossibilechenontiricordineanchecomesichiama?”Daniele iniziaadistrarsi,siguardaintorno,provaadalzarsidallasediaVincenzocontinuaariproporreladomanda.Daniele fuggeviadaltavolino.

Insegnamentosenzaerrori(NONESEMPIO)

QuantoèprobabilecheDanieleimpariadetichettareilpianofortesenzaunadeguatosistemadiinsegnamentosenzaerrori?

Masoprattuttoquantoèprobabile cheDanieledomanitornivolontariamentealavorareconVincenzo?

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Insegnamentosenzaerrori.ESEMPIOSara, lamaestradisostegnodiDanieleglistainsegnandoadetichettarel’immagine diuncavallo.GlimostralafotoconilcavalloeprimacheDanielepossasbagliareglidice:“Cavallo”Daniele ripete“Cavallo”eSaraglichiedenuovamente“Cheanimaleè?”Daniele risponde:“Cavallo”LavoltasuccessivaSaramostraaDaniele lafotoeglidice“Cava…”DanieleetichettacorrettamenteSaracontinuaadinsegnareprevenendoglierroridiDanieleeriducendogradualmentee sistematicamente l’aiuto(Cav…Ca…C…)Daniele imparaadetichettare ilcavalloenonmostracomportamentiproblemadurantele sessionidiinsegnamentocondotteusandoinsegnamentosenzaerrorie riduzionegradualedelsuggerimento

• Video3-4-5

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Insegnamentosenzaerrori/errorless learning(most toleast prompting)

L’insegnamentosenzaerrori(errorless learning)èuntipodiinsegnamentoche:• diminuisce oeliminal’opportunitàdiselezionedirispostescorrette

• massimizzando lapossibilitàdirispostecorrette (Terrace,1963)


L’insegnamento senzaerroripermetteiseguentibenefici:• Minimizza ilnumerodierrori• Aumenta iltempoutilizzatoperl’insegnamento (vs.

correzioni)• Diminuisce laprobabilitàcheglierrorivenganoripetuti

infuturo• Riduce lafrustrazioneedilverificarsidirisposte

emozionaliaumentando l’opportunitàdicontattarefrequentementeilrinforzo

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27


Conl’insegnamentosenzaerrori leabilità sonoinsegnateinmododaprevenire glierroridellostudentechequindinoncommetteràerrori,evitando diacquisireunaabilitàscorretta chedovràesserecorrettaore-insegnatainfuturo.

Prompt “most toleast”:usareilpromptpiùefficaceperevocarelacorrettarispostaeridurlogradualmente

Cos’è il Most-to-LeastPrompting?University of Nebraska Medical Center

Full Parziale liv1 Parziale liv2 Parziale liv3

Fisico Manosu manoMano

sull’avambraccio

Manosulgomito

Manosulbraccio

Gestuale Toccare Indicare Indicare adistanza

Indicare dapiùlontano

VisivoMostrare lacarta dicontinuo

Mostrare lacarta 5s

Mostrare lacarta 2s

Mostrare lacarta 1s

Vocale “Palla” “Pa” “P” Labiale “P”

Rispostatargetattuale

Minimo accennoall’abilità target

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University of Nebraska Medical Center

Cos’è il Most-to-Leastprompting

Instruction

0s

Tempo dall’istruzione

Immediato

Full PromptPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal

Level3PartialPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal

Level2 PartialPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal


Promptfisico



Full Level1Partial Level2Partial Level3Partial

Fisico Manosu manoMano

sull’avambraccio

Manosulgomito

Manosulbraccio

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Tocca ilgatto

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PromptGestuale




Gestuale Toccare Indicare Indicare dalontano

Indicare dapiùlontano

VIDEOEXAMPLE

TouchCat

Promptvisivo




Visivo Mostrarel’immagine

Mostrareimmagine per

5”


2”


1”

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Tocca ilgatto

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Promptvocale




Vocale Dire“gatto” Dire“ga…” Dire “g…” Labiale “g”

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Che cos’è?

Insegnamentosenzaerrori/errorless learning

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DaWeeks etal,1981

ASR5

Conl’insegnamentosenzaerrorisicercadi:

1. minimizzareilnumerodierroridurantel’apprendimento

2. massimizzareilnumerodierroridurantel’apprendimento

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ASR6

Conl’insegnamentosenzaerrori,durantel’insegnamentodiabilitànuove:

1. sifornisceunaiutominimoaumentandolo incasodierrore

2. siforniscel’aiutomenoinvasivomamassimamenteefficaceperottenerelarispostacorretta

THE EFFECTS OF ERRORLESS LEARNING ANDBACKWARD CHAINING ON THE ACQUISITION OF

INTERNET SKILLS IN ADULTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

JARED JEROME, ERIC P. FRANTINO, AND PETER STURMEY

QUEENS COLLEGE AND THE GRADUATE CENTER OF THE CITY

UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK

An important area in the learning and development of individuals with disabilities is theacquisition of independent, age-appropriate leisure skills. Three adults with autism and mentalretardation were taught to access specific Internet sites using backward chaining and most-to-least intrusive prompting. The number of independent steps completed in the task analysisincreased following training.

DESCRIPTORS: autism, computer use, leisure skills

_______________________________________________________________________________

Age-appropriate leisure skills are importantand valued for all individuals, and the use ofpersonal computers has become an importantform of leisure activity for many, includingthose with developmental disabilities. Severalprior investigations have demonstrated effectivemethods for training leisure skills to individualswith developmental disabilities. For example,Luyben, Funk, Morgan, Clark, and Delulio(1986) trained 3 adults with mild mentalretardation a side-of-the-foot soccer pass usingchaining and prompting. The pass was analyzedinto nine steps that were taught sequentiallythrough forward chaining with a varying degreeof prompts as training progressed. At first,verbal instruction plus a physical prompt wereused. These were succeeded by imitativeprompts, gestural prompts, and finally, verbalprompts alone. Eventually the target behavior ofside passing the soccer ball was learned withoutprompts for all participants.

Frank, Wacker, Berg, and McMahon (1985)taught 5 individuals with mental retardation toperform two computer tasks. There were 32 stepsrequired to initiate and terminate a spellingprogram and 23 steps required to initiate andterminate a clock program on the computer. Bothskills were evaluated in a combined multiple

baseline (across students) and sequential with-drawal design. After the first two training sessionsin which picture prompts were used, thepercentage of correct steps completed increasedacross sessions for each participant. When thepicture prompts were removed in the secondbaseline condition, however, the percentage ofcorrect steps decreased. The posttest and follow-up procedures showed a return to the highpercentages found after the first two trainingsessions with picture prompts. Thus, Frank et al.demonstrated that picture prompts were veryeffective in the training of computer skills toindividuals with developmental disabilities.

Although these studies show that adults withdevelopmental disabilities can learn both leisureand computer skills using prompting, forwardand backward chaining, and differential reinforce-ment, no previous research has shown that adultswith developmental disabilities can be taught touse the Internet to access age-appropriate adultleisure activities. Thus, the aim of the currentstudy was to teach adults with autism and mentalretardation to access age-appropriate Web sites onthe Internet using a combined errorless learningand backward chaining procedure.

METHOD

Participants and SettingsChris and Mark were 32-year-old and 24-year-

old men, respectively, and both had been

Requests for reprints should be sent to Jared Jerome,67-41 Burns St. Apt. L7, Forest Hills, New York 11375.

doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.41-06

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2007, 40, 185–189 NUMBER 1 (SPRING 2007)

185

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Figure 1. Number of steps of task analysis completed for 3 participants across all trials.

188 JARED JEROME et al.

68

Diminuire l’assistenza (LeasttoMost)

Esempio

L’insegnante chiede allo studente diprendere il diario.Selostudente nonprende il diario entro 5secondil’insegnantepresenta unpromptverbale dicendo che il diario è nello zaino.Selostudente nonrisponde entro 5secondil’insegnante utilizzail promptdimodello perottenere larisposta.Selostudente nonrisponde entro 5secondil’insegnante utilizza ptompt fisicoperottenere larisposta corretta.

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Cos’è il Least-to-MostPrompting?


Parziale liv3 Parziale liv2 Parziale liv1 Full

Fisico Manosulbraccio

Manosulgomito

Manosull’avambracci

oManosu mano

GestualeIndicare damassimadistanza

Indicare adistanza Indicare Toccare

Visivo Mostrare carta1s

Mostrare carta2s

Mostrare carta5s

Mostrare cartadicontinuo

Vocale Labiale “P” “P” “Pa” “Palla”

Minimo accennoall’abilità target

RispostaTargetAttuale



Instruction

0s


4 s2 s

Wait


Wait Wait Wait



FullPromptPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal

6 s 8 s

Iniziare conun’attesa

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Promptgestuale



Level 3Partial Level2Partial Level1Partial Full

Gestuale Indicare dapiùlontano

Indicare dalontano Indicare Toccare lacarta

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Tocca ilgatto

Promptvocale



Level 3Partial Level2Partial Level1Partial Full

Vocale Labiale “g” Dire“g…” Dire“ga…” Dire“gatto”

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Che cos’è?

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Esempioleast tomost prompting• Scenario:Giulio sascriveresottodettatura manonsacopiaredalla

lavagna

• L’insegnante stainsegnandoaGiulio acopiare ladatadallalavagna• Dàl’istruzione “Giulio scrivi ladata”edaspettacheGiulio iniziascrivere• Giulio nonscrive,l’insegnante glidice“puoicopiaredallalavagna”• Giulio nonscrive,dopoqualche secondol’insegnante indicadalontanola

lavagna• Giulio continua anonscrivere.Dopo qualchesecondol’insegnante sialza

edindicaaGiulio ilpuntoesattodellalavagnadoveèscrittaladata• Giulio continua anonscrivere.Dopo qualchesecondol’insegnante iniziaa

dettareparolaperparolaladata.Giulioscriveladata

• DOMANDA:COMEAVRESTEINSEGNATOQUESTAABILITA’UTILIZZANDOUNAPROCEDURADIMOSTTOLEASTPROMPTING(INSEGNAMENTOSENZAERRORI?)

40 INCREASING INDEPENDENCE OF ADULTS WITH AUTISM

he supports paradigm is a dominant theme underlying service provision for people who have

severe disabilities. This paradigm em-phasizes the involvement of individuals with disabilities in environments in which people without disabilities spend their time, providing whatever supports are necessary to promote successful participation in those settings (Wolfe, Kregel, & Wehman, 1996). A primary intent is to actively involve people with severe disabilities in typical community environments in contrast to more his-torically segregated settings (Smith & Philippen, 2005).

Despite widespread acceptance of the community support movement (Smith & Philippen, 2005; Wolfe et al., 1996), challenges with putting this philosophy into practice have been recognized (Thompson et al., 2004). One noted concern is an apparent de-emphasis on the skill-acquisition needs of people with severe disabilities (Bailey, 2000). Relatedly, concern exists that

support staff may do things for people with severe disabilities rather than teach them skills necessary to participate in ongoing activities (Brown, Farrington, Knight, Ross, & Ziegler, 1999). Our observations as well as others (Cooper & Browder, 1998; Sowers & Powers, 1995) coincide with this contention in that many staff have been observed doing things for individuals, such as ordering their food in fast food restaurants, pick-ing up their tickets prior to entering a movie theater, and opening doors to stores. In these situations, people with severe disabilities tend to fill passive community roles and are prohibited from learning functional skills (Sowers & Powers).

An apparent means of helping in-dividuals with severe disabilities actively participate in community situations is to teach them skills to function in those set-tings. In this regard, there is a substantial research base on community-based in-struction (Inge, Dymond, & Wehman, 1996). Typically with community-based

instruction, skills needed in a specific community environment are identi-fied, task analyzed, and then taught in simulation (Lattimore, Parsons, & Reid, 2008; Sowers & Powers, 1995) and/or in the actual setting (Cooper & Browder, 1998, 2001).

Although community-based in-struction has been successful in many situations, research on its application seems incomplete for thoroughly as-sisting people with severe disabilities in functioning more independently in the community. As just indicated, community-based instruction usually involves the identification of relevant community skills and then formally teaching those skills. However, it is improbable that the entire universe of community-participation skills likely to be needed by people with severe dis-abilities can be identified prior to them accessing various community settings. As individuals encounter new and dif-ferent community environments, skills needed to actively participate in those

Increasing Independence of Adults With Autism in Community Activities: A Brief, Embedded Teaching StrategyMarsha B. Parsons, M.A., J. Iverson Riddle Center, Morganton, North CarolinaDennis H. Reid, Ph.D., BCBA, Carolina Behavior Analysis and Support CenterL. Perry Lattimore, M.A., J. Iverson Riddle Center

We evaluated a brief, embedded teaching strategy for increasing the indepen-dence of adults with autism in performing community activities. Initially, com-munity situations were observed to identify an activity that a support staff was performing for an individual. The staff person was then trained to implement SWAT Support (say, wait and watch, act out, touch to guide) involving least-to-most prompting and praise to teach the individual on the spot to complete the activity. SWAT Support was implemented by support staff with 3 adults during break activities at a community job (Study 1), with 1 adult in a grocery store (Study 2), and with another individual in a secretary’s office (Study 3). All applications of embedded teaching were accompanied by increased participant independence, which generally maintained across follow-up periods of up to 33 weeks. Results are discussed regarding how practitioners could use the teaching strategy to reduce staff and caregiver completion of activities for adults with autism and increase active community participation. Keywords: Adults, autism, community participation, embedded teaching

ABSTRACT

T

Behavior Analysis in Practice, 2(2), 40-48

Behavior analysis inpractice,2(2),40-48

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43INCREASING INDEPENDENCE OF ADULTS WITH AUTISM

For subsequent applications of the intervention across workers and activities, the job coach was just instructed to use SWAT Support with that respective activity and again instructed to continue doing everything else with other activities according to the usual routine. After the break routine, vocal feedback was provided to the job coach by an experimenter regarding the level of independence displayed by the supported worker(s) for each target activity for which SWAT Support had been applied. Additionally, for those observations that included an integrity check (see following discussion), the job coach was provided vocal feedback regarding the SWAT Support steps that he implemented correctly and incorrectly (the latter only if applicable).

Integrity checks on the job coach’s use of SWAT Support were conducted by an experimenter. Table 1 provides addi-tional information regarding correct use of the process for each respective step. Probes were conducted for each worker and activity during 70% of all intervention sessions. Interobserver agreement checks were conducted on 27% of all integrity checks, including for each worker and activity. Interobserver

agreement was calculated as described previously on an intervention step-by-step basis for correct implementation of each step by the job coach. Interobserver agreement averaged 97% (range, 80% to 100%) for occurrence of correct step implementation, 95% (range, 67% to 100%) for nonoccur-rence, and 98% (range, 86% to 100%) for overall agreement. Across all integrity checks, the job coach averaged 95% correct implementation of the steps (range, 67% to 100%). Time-measurement probes indicated the SWAT Support process typically required less than 1 min to carry out and never as much as 2 min.

Follow up. Following completion of the intervention, the job coach continued using the SWAT Support process during the break routine. Follow-up observations were conducted at periods ranging from 3 to 33 weeks.

Results

Figure 1 shows the results for the 3 participants. During baseline observations of performance opportunities (maxi-mum of one per each work day per supported worker) for

Figure 1. Level of independence demonstrated during each performance opportunity by each participant for each activity during baseline and SWAT Support. Level of independence is represented by “0” (least independent – performed by support staff ), “1” (per-formed by participant with full physical guidance), “2” (performed with partial physical guidance), “3” (performed following a gesture prompt), and “4” (most independent – performed following the initial instruction).

Studio1:usoleast tomost prompt peraumentareindipendenza

45INCREASING INDEPENDENCE OF ADULTS WITH AUTISM

Support conditions, the support staff was asked to continue using SWAT Support during his grocery shopping trips with the participant. Follow-up observations were then conducted 5 weeks later. The experimental design was a multiple baseline across the two target shopping activities.

Integrity checks on the support staff ’s application of SWAT Support were conducted as in Study 1 during all observations during the intervention conditions. Interobserver agreement checks were conducted on 29% of the integrity checks, in-cluding for both shopping activities, with no disagreements between observers. Across all integrity checks, the support staff correctly completed an average of 91% of the intervention steps correctly (range, 67% to 100%).

Results

As indicated on Figure 2 (top two panels), the least inde-pendent category ( “0” — no opportunity; performed by the support staff ) was recorded for every performance opportunity for both shopping activities during baseline. In contrast, once

SWAT Support was initiated, the participant performed both activities independently (score of “4”) on every occasion except one for the push cart activity (score of “3” – performed follow-ing a gesture). Independent performance maintained during follow-up.

Similar to results of Study 1, results of Study 2 indicated SWAT Support was accompanied by increased independence of the adult with autism in performing two (seemingly simple) activities that previously were being performed for the participant by the support staff. In contrast to Study 1, the participant in the current study appeared to have the skills to complete the activities in his repertoire or readily acquired the skills following an initial vocal instruction. However, he was not given an opportunity to perform the skills during baseline because the staff person was completing the activities. For the most part, the participants in Study 1 appeared to learn to complete the activities across repeated applications of the teaching strategy. Because no formal evaluations were con-ducted of the participants’ skills in completing the activities

Figure 2. Level of independence demonstrated during each performance opportunity by participant Mel (top two panels) and Mike (bottom panel) for each activity during baseline and SWAT Support. Level of independence is represented by “0” (least independent – performed by support staff ), “1” (performed by participant with full physical guidance), “2” (performed with partial physical guid-ance), “3” (performed following a gesture prompt), and “4” (most independent – performed following the initial instruction).

Studio2:generalizzazioneinluogodiverso

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77

Ritardare il prompt(promptdelay)

PromptDelay: si trasferisce lostimuluscontroldalpromptallo stimolo naturale,ritardando lapresentazione delpromptdopo che lostimolo naturaleè stato presentato (Cooper316)

• Iltermine delay(ritardo)si riferisce all’attesa dell’operatore primadidareilprompt

• Esempio:si riduce il promptvocale sul tact“Scarpa”,ritardandone lapresentazione dopo che è stata mostrata lascarpa– Adulto:mostra lascarpa echiede che cos’è?+promptvocale scarpa– Bambino:Scarpa– Adulto:mostra lascarpa echiede che cos’è?Easpetta 3secondiprimadidareil promptvocale

(questa attesa è il promptdelay)– Bambino:Scarpa– Adulto rinforza– Selostudente nonrisponde,l’adulto fornisce il promptvocale dopo l’attesa


Comeusiamo il PromptDelay?

Instruction

0s

Iniziare alminimo


Immediato

2s

Wait


Immediato

Full PromptPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal

Level3PartialPhysicalGesturalPictorialVocal



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Promptfisico



Level3Partial

Fisico Manosulgomito

VIDEOEXAMPLE

Tocca ilgatto

Instruction

0sTempo dall’istruzione

2s

Wait

Promptvisivo



Level3Partial

Visivo Mostrare cartaper1"

VIDEOEXAMPLE

TouchCat

Instruction

0sTempo dall’istruzione

2s

Wait

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INCREASING THE VOCAL RESPONSES OF CHILDRENWITH AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES USING

MANUAL SIGN MAND TRAINING AND PROMPT DELAY

VINCENT J. CARBONE AND EMILY J. SWEENEY-KERWIN

CARBONE CLINIC

VIVIAN ATTANASIO

VERBAL BEHAVIOR INSTITUTE

AND

TAMARA KASPER

CENTER FOR AUTISM TREATMENT

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of manual sign mand training combinedwith prompt delay and vocal prompting on the production of vocal responses in nonvocalchildren with developmental disabilities. A multiple baseline design across participants verifiedthe effectiveness of this intervention. All participants showed increases in vocal responsesfollowing the implementation of the independent variables.

Key words: autism, mand, manual sign language, prompt delay, vocal responding

_______________________________________________________________________________

Although the goal of many language trainingprograms is to develop vocal verbal behavior,this can sometimes be a long and difficultprocess. In addition, the absence of vocal verbalbehavior leaves minimally vocal children with-out an effective form of communication. Severalstudies have provided empirical support for theuse of manual sign manding in producing afunctional communication repertoire in theabsence of effective vocal verbal behaviorrepertoires for children with developmentaldisabilities (see Schlosser & Wendt, 2008, fora review; Gregory, DeLeon, & Richman, 2009).A limited body of research has also suggested

that manual sign language may facilitate thedevelopment of vocal responding, but theseeffects may be limited to those children whohave already developed at least a modest vocalimitation repertoire and may not produce thesame effect for children who do not alreadyemit a variety of vocal responses (see Schlosser& Wendt for a review). Additional procedures,conducted in combination with the teaching ofmanual sign language, may therefore be neces-sary to facilitate vocal responding.

Prompt-delay procedures, used in combina-tion with alternative forms of communicationand mand training, have been demonstrated toincrease the vocal verbal behavior repertoires ofchildren with developmental disabilities (e.g.,Tincani, 2004; Tincani, Crozier, & Alazetta,2006). For example, Tincani et al. found adifferentially higher percentage of vocal re-sponses when prompt delay was used incombination with mand training using thepicture exchange communication system(PECS) compared to when mands were rein-forced immediately after the exchange of the

Correspondence concerning this article should beaddressed to Vincent J. Carbone, Carbone Clinic, 614Corporate Way, Valley Cottage, New York 10989 (e-mail:[email protected]).

doi: 10.1901/jaba.2010.43-705

We thank the parents of the participants for theirsupport and cooperation. Portions of this paper werepresented at the annual meeting of the New York StateAssociation for Behavior Analysis, Saratoga Springs,November, 2005, and the annual meeting of theAssociation for Behavior Analysis International, Atlanta,Georgia, May, 2006.

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2010, 43, 705–709 NUMBER 4 (WINTER 2010)

705

Figure 1. The frequency of manual sign mands accompanied by prompted and unprompted vocal responses per session.

708 VINCENT J. CARBONE et al.

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83

Ritardare il prompt

Mentre lestrategiemosttoleasteleasttomostsi basano su cambiamenti graduali nella forma,posizione ointensità dei promptpertrasferire lostimuluscontrol,il promptdelayutilizza solodelle variazioni degli intervalli ditempotra lapresentazione dello stimolo naturale eil promptpertrasferire lostimuluscontrol.(Cooper316)


Instruction

0s

FullPrompt

No,larisposta nonè mai stata emessa dopo l’istruzione


Lostudentehamai emesso il comportamento correttamente?

Comefaccio asapere qualestrategiausare?

Level1PartialLevel2PartialLevel3Partial

2s

Level3Partial

Wait

UsareMost-to-LeastPrompting

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Instruction

0s

No,larisposta nonè mai stata emessa dopo l’istruzioneO

Forse lostudente NONè motivatoademettere larisposta


Lostudentehamai emesso il comportamento correttamente?

Comefaccio asapere qualestrategiausare?

2s

Level3 Partial

Wait

4s

Wait

6s

Wait

8s

Wait

Level2 Partial Level1 Partial Full Prompt

Usare Least-to-MostPrompting

ASR7• Indicarequaletipodiproceduradieliminazionedelprompt èstatousata:– L’insegnantemostraunascarpaaMarcoeglichiedechecos’è.Dàunpromptverbaleimmediato.Marcorisponde“Scarpa”. Immediatamente dopol’insegnantechiedeaMarcochecos’è?Mentreglimostralascarpaeaspetta3secondi.Marcorisponde“Scarpa”

• Prompt delay• Prompt fading• Stimulus fading

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ASR8• Indicarequaletipodiproceduradieliminazionedelprompt èstatousata:– L’insegnantediceaMarcodi vestirsiefornisceprompt fisicototale sututtiglisteps trannel’ultimo.Sull’ultimo step usaunprompt gestuale.Qualetecnicaditransferdistimulus controlstausando sull’ultimo step


ASR9• Indicarequaletipodiproceduradieliminazionedelprompt èstatousata:– L’insegnante diceaMarcodi vestirsiesegueMarcoconlamanosututtiglisteps senzatoccarlo.Intervienecongestioprompt verbalisoloquandoMarcosibloccaperalcunisecondi.Quandoaspettaprimadidareilprompt qualestrategiaditransferdellostimulus controlstausando:


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ASR10• Indicarequaletipodiproceduradieliminazionedelprompt èstatousata:– L’insegnantediceaMarcodi vestirsiegliindicailgiubbino.Marcoindugiaper4secondi.Dopo5secondi,Marcoemettelarispostatarget.


ASR11• Indicarequaletipodiproceduradieliminazionedelprompt èstatousata:– IlpersonaltrainerdiLorisusadeicerchiaterraperindicaredoveLorisdevefermarsiall’inizioeallafinedellacorsa.Gradualmentesostituisce icerchicondeipezzidiscotchaterra,finoanonlasciarenessunatraccia.Lorisimparaapartiredallalineaeafermarsidopoaversuperatoiltraguardo


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Obiettivo6Descrivereedimostrarel’usoappropriatodelloshaping

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Shaping

• Consiste nel rinforzo diapprossimazioni successiveaduncomportamento targetenell’estinzione dialtrerisposte nontarget

• Loshapingè usato perl’acquisizione dinuovicomportamenti,perripristinarecomportamenti appresinel passato opercambiare alcune dimensioni diuncomportamento (frequenza,latenza…)

• Latecnica usata nello shapingè il rinforzo differenziato,che consiste nell’uso congiunto del:– Rinforzo perlerisposte target– Estinzioneperlerispostenontarget

Esempio

• Davidestaimparandoadipingereusandoilrullo.Ilterapistacambiagradualmentelacontingenzadirinforzopermodellareapprossimazionisuccessivealcomportamentofinale,chesaràdipingereaccuratamenteunpannello,senzamacchiarelasuperficieintorno,eseguendouncorrettomovimento(avanti-indietro)conilrullo.

• Gradualmentevienerichiestaun’accuratezzacrescente,perottenereilrinforzo(diseguitoleapprossimazionisuccessive):– Poggiareilrullo sulpannello– Farealmeno1movimento(avanti-indietro)– Fare1movimento,posizionando ilrullosuunospaziobianco– Fare1movimentosenzafarcaderevernicefuori dalpannello– Etc…

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Nonesempio

• Davidestaimparandoadindossareilgiubbino• Ilsuoeducatorereggeilgiubbinoeloaiutaadindossarlo.LasecondavoltaprovaadargliilgiubbinopervedereseDavideloindossaautonomamente

• PerchéNONèunesempiodishaping (rivederedefinizione)?

• Qualepartedelladefinizionedishapingmancainquestoesempio?

ASR12

• Indicareperqualitargetloshaping èlamigliorestrategiadiinsegnamento(NB:devonoesserepossibiliapprossimazionisuccessivealcomportamentotarget)– Coloraredentroimarginidiundisegno

• V• F

– Mangiaresenzasporcarsiilviso• V• F

– Tirareunapallanellaporta• V• F

– Attraversaresullestriscepedonali• V• F

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ASR13– Tirareunapallanelcanestro

• V• F

– Suonareuntamburoseguendo ilritmo• V• F

– Accenderelalucepremendountasto• V• F

Esercitazione3(insieme)

• Creareunpianodiinsegnamento,usandoloshaping,perilseguentecomportamentotarget:– Tagliarestriscedicartapercrearedeifestoni,usandoforbiciefoglidicartaconilsegnosucuitagliare,perunostudenteche(A)impugnaleforbici,ma(B)nonsegueilsegnosucuitagliare e(C)escedallelineedi3-8cm

• Indicareapprossimazioni successivealcomportamento target• Indicarequalirinforzi siuserannoeicriteri perusodelrinforzodifferenziato

• Sviluppareunaschedadipresadatiperregistrare data,operatore,rispostadarinforzare erispostaemessadallostudente

• Aiuto:loshaping siriferisce all’accuratezza delcomportamento(allasuatopografia)

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Schedaesercitazioneshaping

1 taglioentro4cm

2 taglioentro3cm

3 taglioentro2cm

4 taglioentro1cm

Obiettivofinale:taglioentro1cm

Primaapprossimazione:taglioentro5cmApprossimazionisuccessive:passareadapprossimazionesuccessivadopo3rispostecorretteconsecutiveall'approssimazioneprecedente.

Data OperatoreRispostadarinforzare

Erroremassimoemesso


1

2

3

4

10-ago AD

08-ago AD

09-ago AD

06-ago AD

07-ago AD

05-ago AD

03-ago AD taglioentro5cm 5

04-ago AD



Obiettivofinale:

Primaapprossimazione:

Approssimazionisuccessive:passareadapprossimazionesuccessivadopo3risposte

corretteconsecutiveall'approssimazioneprecedente.

Data Operatore

Rispostada

rinforzare

Erroremassimo

emesso

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1

2

3

4

10-ago AD

08-ago AD

09-ago AD


07-ago AD






Obiettivofinale:




Data Operatore

Rispostada

rinforzare

Erroremassimo

emesso


1

2

3

4











Obiettivofinale:




Data Operatore

Rispostada

rinforzare

Erroremassimo

emesso

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Obiettivo7

Descrivereedimostrareusoappropriatodelmodeling

Definizione

Ilmodeling èunastrategiadiprompting efficaceperstudentichehannoappresoalcunideicomportamentinecessariperl’imitazione.Ilmodeling dovrebbeessereusatosoloconstudentichehannogiàsviluppatocapacitàimitative

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Esempio

• Mostrareallostudente ilcorrettomovimentopertirarelapallaversoilcanestro.

• Lostudenteguardailmodello(l’educatoreinquestocaso)

• L’educatoreglipassalapallaelostudentetiracorrettamente

Nonesempio• L’educatoreaiutamanualmentelostudenteatirarelapallaacanestro

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PEER MODELING OF RESPONSE CHAINS: OBSERVATIONALLEARNING BY STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

MARGARET GESSLER WERTS, NIcOLA K. CALDWELL, AND MARK WOLERYALLEGHENY-SINGER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

MEDICAL COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA AND HAHNEMANN UNIVERSITY

Peer models (classmates without disabilities) who were proficient in performing a taskcompleted one response chain each day and described the steps they performed whiletheir classmates with disabilities observed. Three students with disabilities participated,and their performance of the response chains was assessed immediately prior to andfollowing the peer modeling each day. A multiple probe design across response chains,replicated across children with disabilities, was used. In addition, participation and socialinteractions of children with disabilities and their peer models were assessed in classroomactivities after daily modeling sessions. The results indicate that the peer models per-formed the response chains accurately and quickly, and students with disabilities acquiredthe response chains. Across the study, participation in classroom activities was high, socialinteractions were low, and neither was affected by the peer modeling intervention.DESCRIPTORS: modeling, peer modeling, response chains, children with disabili-

ties, observational learning

The potential for observational learningand the development of positive social rela-tionships are major rationales for inclusiveschooling-the enrollment of children withdisabilities in the general education class-rooms they would have attended if they didnot have disabilities (Stainback & Stainback,1992). Several studies have focused on theeffects of peer models. Goldstein and Mou-setis (1989) demonstrated that students with

This study was supported by the U.S. Departmentof Education, Office of Special Education and Reha-bilitative Services (Grant H086D20005). However,the opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect thepolicy of the U.S. Department of Education, and noofficial endorsement should be inferred. The authorsare grateful for the assistance provided by Paula Cal-abrese, Assistant Superintendent; Richard Baker, Prin-cipal; Barbara Davis, Cathleen Zierenberg, and Car-olyn Frederick; teachers at Hampton Township SchoolDistrict, and the parents who allowed their childrento participate. The authors also acknowledge the con-tributions made by Erin Snyder, Leslie Anthony, JulieKatzenmeyer, and Christine Salisbury of the Child andFamily Studies Program, Allegheny-Singer ResearchInstitute.

Requests for reprints should be addressed to MarkWolery, Child and Family Studies Program, Alleghe-ny-Singer Research Institute, 320 E. North Avenue,Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15212.

mental retardation acquired and generalizedexpressive language when their peers withdisabilities modeled the responses in highlycontrolled situations. Egel, Richman, andKoegel (1981), working with students withautism, demonstrated that the students ob-served models and imitated discrete re-sponses. Other studies have documentedthat students with disabilities often acquiresome but not all of the behaviors taught totheir peers with disabilities during small-group instruction. These studies have fo-cused on discrete responses such as namingpictures, reading words, or answering ques-tions (Alig-Cybriwsky, Wolery, & Gast,1990; Doyle, Gast, Wolery, Ault, & Farmer,1990; Farmer, Gast, Wolery, & Winterling,1991; Keel & Gast, 1990; Wolery, Cybriw-sky, Gast, & Boyle-Gast, 1991). In thesestudies, students were each taught differentbehaviors. The teacher cued all students tolook at the instructional stimuli, provided atrial to 1 student, prompted that student'sresponse, and reinforced correct responding.Many of the skills needed by students withsubstantial disabilities, however, are response

53

1996, 295 53-66 NUMBER I (SPRING 1996)

MARGARET GESSLER WERTS et al.Probe I Peer Modeling Probe 2

A /1I,

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282

Figure 1. Percentage of steps performed correctly by Charlie for three response chains. Triangles representpercentage of steps correct in initial probes, and open circles represent percentage of steps correct in imitationprobes.

consistent in the sequence of entering num-bers and functions. The models were givena white card (30 cm by 15 cm) with "2 +3 =" handwritten in black letters (6.5 cm),and they were instructed to show the cardto the child while they performed the cal-culation. The visual cue was effective forJames. Charlie continued to make errors,and his peer models were instructed first topoint to a character on the equation cardand then to press the corresponding button

on the calculator. The investigator guidedCharlie's hand if he pointed to numbers andfunctions out of sequence. The guidance wasdropped for the final two sessions, andCharlie maintained 100% correct imple-mentation of the task. The card with thewritten equation remained in place for theremainder of the trials.

In the observation sessions for the firstchain, James initially refused to comply withthe request to perform the chain in imitation

Probe 3 Probe 4 Post-Test

60

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ASR14

• Ilmodeling puòessereusatoconstudentichehannopochissimeabilitàdiimitazione.L’importanteècheilmodellosiachiaroeilrisultatosiamotivanteperlostudente– V– F

Obiettivo8Descrivereedimostrareusoappropriatodelvideomodelingevideoprompting

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Definizione

• Nelvideomodeling lostudenteimitauncomportamentomostratoinvideo,anzichédaunmodellorealeepresente.Ilcomportamentoèmostratoperintero

• Inunavariante delvideomodeling èlostessostudenteamettereinattoilcomportamentocorretto(video-selfmodeling)

• Nelvideoprompting il comportamentotargetèsuddivisoinpiùstep.Lostudenteguardailvideodelsingolostep edhal’opportunitàdieseguirloprimadivedereilvideosuccessivo.

93

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2004, 37, 93–96 NUMBER 1 (SPRING 2004)

EFFECTS OF VIDEO MODELING ON SOCIALINITIATIONS BY CHILDREN WITH AUTISM

CHRISTOS K. NIKOPOULOS AND MICHAEL KEENAN

UNIVERSITY OF ULSTER AT COLERAINE

We examined the effects of a video modeling intervention on social initiation and playbehaviors with 3 children with autism using a multiple baseline across subjects design.Each child watched a videotape showing a typically developing peer, and the experimenterengaged in a simple social interactive play using one toy. For all children, social initiationand reciprocal play skills were enhanced, and these effects were maintained at 1- and 3-month follow-up periods.

DESCRIPTORS: autism, children, video modeling, social interaction, reciprocal play

Children with autism make or accept few-er social initiations and spend more timeplaying alone compared to their peers (Koe-gel, Koegel, Frea, & Fredeen, 2001; Shabaniet al., 2002). Video modeling is a promisingmethod for promoting social skills in thesechildren (LeBlanc et al., 2003; Sherer et al.,2001). Video modeling has been defined asthe occurrence of a behavior by an observerthat is similar to the behavior shown by amodel on a videotape. In this study we ex-amined the effects of video modeling on so-cial initiation and reciprocal play.

METHOD

Participants and SettingsThree children (Daniel, Christopher, and

Andrew) who were between 7 and 9 yearsold and who had been diagnosed with au-tism participated in the study. Their scores

This research was completed as part of the require-ments for a PhD in psychology by the first author.Portions of this study were presented at the annualmeeting of the Experimental Analysis of BehaviourGroup, London, March 2002. We are grateful to allstaff of Freemantles School in Surrey, England, fortheir cooperation and support in conducting thisstudy. A special thanks to all of the children who par-ticipated in the study.

Address all correspondence and requests for reprintsto either author at the School of Psychology, Univer-sity of Ulster at Coleraine, Cromore Road, Coleraine,Co. Londonderry, BT52 1SA, Northern Ireland.

on the Childhood Autism Rating Scale(Schopler, Reichler, & Renner, 2002) werein the mild to moderate range (i.e., totalscores of 31, 32, and 35.5, respectively). Thechildren were exposed to a video model inone room, and their social initiations andplay were measured in another room.

Stimulus Materials and ResponseMeasurements

Four toys (a ball, a trampoline, tambou-rines, and a game called Hungry Frogs!) anda videotape were used in the study. All par-ticipants were familiar with the toys, thusmaking guidance and instructions unneces-sary. In the videotape, a typically developingpeer (the model) entered a room with theexperimenter. The experimenter sat on achair placed opposite all of the toys, and themodel approached the experimenter, tookhim by the hand saying, ‘‘Let’s play,’’ andplayed with him for about 15 s on the toy(the trampoline) that was closest to his chair.

Social initiation was defined as the childapproaching the experimenter, emitting avocal (e.g., ‘‘Let’s play’’) or gestural (e.g., tak-ing him by the hands) behavior, and leadinghim towards a toy. Reciprocal play was de-fined as the child engaged in play with theexperimenter using any toy in the mannerfor which it was intended. Latency to socialinitiation and the total duration of reciprocal

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95VIDEO MODELING

Figure 1. The latency to social initiation and the mean time engaged in reciprocal play with each toy acrossconditions for all children. Shaded areas (Condition B2) indicate those occasions when a simplified videopresentation was used.

A COMPARISON OF PEER VIDEO MODELING AND SELF VIDEOMODELING TO TEACH TEXTUAL RESPONSES IN CHILDREN

WITH AUTISM

ALONNA MARCUS AND DAVID A. WILDER

FLORIDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Peer video modeling was compared to self video modeling to teach 3 children with autism torespond appropriately to (i.e., identify or label) novel letters. A combination multiple baselineand multielement design was used to compare the two procedures. Results showed that all 3participants met the mastery criterion in the self-modeling condition, whereas only 1 of theparticipants met the mastery criterion in the peer-modeling condition. In addition, theparticipant who met the mastery criterion in both conditions reached the criterion more quicklyin the self-modeling condition. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for teachingnew skills to children with autism.

DESCRIPTORS: autism, skill acquisition, textual responses, video modeling

_______________________________________________________________________________

Children with autism typically have difficul-ties with social interaction, deficits in language,and problems with pretend play skills (Amer-ican Psychiatric Association, 1994). One way toimprove behavior and increase skills in thesechildren is to teach imitation (DeQuinzio,Townsend, Sturmey, & Poulson, 2007). Videomodeling involves a child watching a video thatdepicts someone performing a task that istargeted for acquisition by the child. A numberof studies have shown that video modeling canbe used to effectively teach a variety of skills tochildren with autism. These include teachingsocial skills (Wert & Neisworth, 2003), playskills (D’Ateno, Mangiapanello, & Taylor,2003), and purchasing skills (Haring, Kennedy,Adams, & Pitts-Conway, 1987).

Video modeling might be more advantageousthan in vivo modeling for a number of reasons.First, the cost of making videotapes can belower than the cost of bringing therapists into

homes, schools, or centers to serve as models.Also, a videotape can be used in a variety ofsettings; a video can be taken anywhere andplayed at any time. In addition, a video can beplayed repeatedly, giving the child a chance towatch the video more closely and practice askill. Finally, tasks on video can be shown andtaught in a standardized way, which mightmake a skill easier to learn (Charlop-Christy,Le, & Freeman, 2000).

One variation of video modeling is self videomodeling, which involves the target childobserving him- or herself perform some taskor engage in some skill on the video. To createthe video, the child is typically prompted toengage in certain behaviors at appropriate timesor in response to appropriate stimuli. Thoseprompts are then removed from the tape priorto using the tape for modeling. Self videomodeling has also been shown to be effective inteaching children with autism a variety of skills,including spontaneous requesting (Wert &Neisworth, 2003) and initiating interactionswith peers (Buggey, 2005).

Only one study has compared peer videomodeling to self video modeling. Sherer et al.(2001) compared the two procedures to teachconversation skills to 5 children with autism.Each child was either shown a video in which

This report is based on a thesis submitted by the firstauthor in partial fulfillment of the requirements for themaster of science degree in applied behavior analysis at theFlorida Institute of Technology.

Address correspondence to David A. Wilder, FloridaInstitute of Technology, School of Psychology, 150 W.University Blvd., Melbourne, Florida 32901 (e-mail:[email protected]).

doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-335

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2009, 42, 335–341 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 2009)

335

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Figure 1. Percentage of trials with correct responses across baseline and video modeling conditions for Brian (top),Mandy (middle), and Matt (bottom).

COMPARISON OF VIDEO MODELING 339

Comparing Video Prompting to Video Modeling for TeachingDaily Living Skills to Six Adults with Developmental

Disabilities

Helen Cannella-MaloneThe Ohio State University

Jeff SigafoosUniversity of Tasmania

Mark O’Reilly, Berenice de la Cruz,and Chaturi Edrisinha

The University of Texas at Austin

Giulio E. LancioniUniversity of Bari, Italy

Abstract: We compared two procedures (video prompting versus video modeling) for teaching six adults withdevelopmental disabilities to set a table and put away groceries. Video prompting involved 10 separate videoclips, each showing one step of the task analysis. Video modeling involved a single video showing all 10 stepsfrom beginning to end. After watching the respective video clips, participants were given the opportunity tocomplete the task. Video prompting and video modeling procedures were counter-balanced across tasks andparticipants and compared in an alternating treatments design. Video prompting was effective in promotingrapid acquisition across both tasks in all but one case. Video modeling, in contrast, was generally shown to beineffective. These data suggest that the number, duration, and/or perspective from which the video clips arefilmed may influence their effectiveness as a teaching tool for individuals with developmental disabilities.

An important long-term objective of educa-tional programs for people with developmen-tal disabilities is the promotion of valued so-cial roles (Wolfensberger, 2000). Given thisobjective, behavior modification should focus,in part, on teaching functional, age-appropri-ate skills that enable the individual to assumevalued social roles (Brown, 1979; Thompson& Grabowski, 1977). One valued social role

for adults in Western societies is indepen-dence in completing various daily living tasks,such as putting away groceries and setting thetable for lunch (Kroska, 2003; Wilk, 1989).When an individual presents with significantdeficits in adaptive behavior functioning, as iscommon for many adults with developmentaldisabilities (Jacobson & Ackerman, 1990; Krai-jer, 2000), they may be unable to assume thisvalued social role. Explicit training is oftenrequired to teach the necessary skills (Duker,Didden, & Sigafoos, 2004). Until such timewhen this training is successful, the individualwill remain dependent on others, with theconsequential risk of being de-valued(Wolfensberger). In addition, their lack ofcontribution to the completion of daily livingtasks creates an imbalance in the division oflabor and thus increases the overall burden ofcare (Haveman, van Berkum, Rejinders, &Heller, 1997). Given the social value of inde-pendent living, it is not surprising that devel-opment of daily living skills figures heavily inthe habilitative plans of adults with develop-mental disabilities (Stancliffe, Hayden, &Lakin, 2000).

Preparation of this manuscript was supported by agrant from the Texas Health and Human ServicesCommission [CAT-D (Computer Accommodationsfor Texans with Disabilities) Grant Project]. Theopinions expressed are those of the authors and donot necessarily reflect those of the granting agency.The CAT-D project team included: Megha Up-adhyaya, Alonzo Andrews, Anna Hundley, CarolynGarver, and David Young. We are grateful to thestaff of The Autism Treatment Centers of Dallas andSan Antonio for their assistance in this project. Cor-respondence concerning this article should be ad-dressed to Helen Cannella-Malone, The Ohio StateUniversity, School of Physical Activity & EducationalServices, 356G Arps Hall, 1945 North High Street,Columbus, OH 43210. Email: [email protected]

Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2006, 41(4), 344–356© Division on Developmental Disabilities

344 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-December 2006

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Figure 1a. Percentage of steps completed correctly across sessions and tasks for Jack, Ron, and Kurt.

350 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-December 2006

Figure 1b. Percentage of steps completed correctly across sessions and tasks for Gina, John, and Steve.

Prompting Versus Modelling / 351

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Esempio

• Untutorialperpreparareunpaninoèunesempiodivideomodeling

• Unvideoincuiilterapistadiceallostudente“prendiildiario”,“leggiicompitiperdomani”,prendiilquaderno”,“mettiilquadernosultavolo”,mostrandolesingoleazioniunapervoltaèunesempiodivideoprompting

ASR15• Luciostaimparandoaprepararelozainodellapalestra.Usaunprogrammasultablet incuiguardaunvideoincuiunaterapistaglielencatuttiglioggettidametterenelborsone.Alterminedelvideo,Lucioprendetuttiglioggettielimettenelborsone.

• Questoèunesempiodi:– Videoprompting– Videomodeling– Videoselfmodeling

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ASR16

• Pietrodeveimparareadallacciarsi lascarpa.Perfarequestousaunprogrammasultablet,incuiguardadeibrevivideodiunaterapistachesiallaccia lascarpa.Dopoavervistoognivideo,imital’azioneepassaalvideosuccessivo,imital’azionesuccessiva,finoalla finedituttiivideo.Questoèunesempiodi:– Videoprompting– Videomodeling– Videoselfmodeling

ASR17• Mariosiallenaalcamposportivoguardandodeivideoincuifadegliesercizipermigliorarelacorsa.Alterminedelvideosvolgel’esercizio.

• Questoèunesempiodi:– Videoprompting– Videomodeling– Videoselfmodeling

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Obiettivo9

Descriverel’usoappropriatodelchaining

Definizione

Chaining (Concatenamento):“ilterminechainingsiriferisceadiversimetodipercollegarespecifichesequenzedistimolierisposteperformaredellenuoveabilità”.(Cooper,Heron &Heward,2007)

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125

ChainingIlcomportamento diogni individuo può esseremoltopiù complesso.Cisono situazioni incuicomportamenticomplessi sono composti dapiù diuna risposta.

Quando questi comportamenti avvengono inuna sequenza,questi costituiscono una catena(behavioralchain)

126

Chaining

BehavioralChain: uncomportamentocomplesso che consiste in2opiùcomportamenti che avvengono insequenza.

Perogni componente c’è unSDed una risposta.Questaviene anche chiamata stimulus-responsechain (Miltenberger)

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UniversityofNebraskaMedicalCenter

CUE RESPONSE

RESPONSECUE

Turningonalaptop

128

ChainingConsiderateil seguente esempio della gommadamasticare.1.Mettere lamano intasca2.Tirare fuori il pacchetto3.Prendere una gomma4.Scartare lagomma5.Mettere lagomma inbocca

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129

Chaining

Questo esempio contiene almeno 5comportamenti che devono avvenire inunadeterminata sequenza.Nonpotete emetterneuno senonè avvenuto il precedente (es.Nonpotete mettere lagomma inbocca senonl’avetescartata)(Miltenberger)

ASR18

• Ilchaining (concatenamento)èunatecnicadiusataperinsegnarecomportamenticostituitidapiùdiunasingolarisposta– V– F

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ASR19Indicareperqualicomportamentiutilizzeresteunastrategiadichaining (fermorestandochel’ultimadecisionedipendedallostudenteconcuilavorate)

• Risponderealsaluto– SI– NO

• Raggiungereilsupermercato– SI– NO

• Creareunacartellasulpc– SI– NO

• Lavareipiatti– SI– NO

• Chiederel’acquaquandosihasete– SI– NO

• Sedersiperterraperunostudentechehal’abilitàdiimitareilmovimentodisedersiaterra– SI– NO

• Comprareunapizzetta– SI– NO

Obiettivo10

Definirelataskanalysis diunparticolarecomportamento

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DefinizionetaskanalysisIlprocesso dianalisi diuna catenadicomportamenti,scomponendoli nelle loro singolecomponenti “stimolo- risposta”si chiama taskanalysis

Ilprimopasso perinsegnare qualsiasi compitocomplesso che coinvolga catene stimolo-rispostamultiple.E’necessario praticare il compito escrivere i passaggi nell’ordine nel qualesi verificano.

134

Taskanalysis

Percondurre un’analisi delcompito,si puòosservare una personacompetente mentreemette il comportamento,chiedere adunesperto oemettere il comportamento dasolieregistrare ogni singola risposta

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Esempiotaskanalysis perprepararepianodilavoroperpiantaredellepiantine

• 1prenderevaschettadipolistirolo• 2metterlasulpianodilavoro• 3prendere5-6vasetti• 4portarlisulpianodilavoro• 5prendereinnaffiatoio• 6portarlovicinoaltubo• 7mettereiltubodentro• 8aprireilrubinetto• 9quandol’acquaarrivaalsegno,chiudereilrubinetto• 10portareinnaffiatoioalpianodilavoro

ASR20• Unataskanalysis èunascomposizione delcompitonellesuesingolerispostecostituenti,incuièspecificatalatopografiadiognisingolarisposta.– V– F

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Obiettivo11Descrivereconcatenamentoanterogrado,retrogrado,total taskpresentation

138

Concatenamentoretrogrado

Ilconcatenamento retrogrado (Backwardchaining) inizia conil suggerire eridurre ilpromptnell’ultima risposta della catena,finchèquesta è acquisita.Successivamente si riduce ilpromptsulla penultima risposta.Ilprocessocontinuafinchè lostudente emette tutte lesingole risposte della catena.

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TaskAnalysis:Scrivere ladatasul quaderno

1. Prendere il quaderno

2. Metterlo sul banco

3. Aprire alla pagina vuota

4. Prendere lapenna

5. Scrivere ladata

BackwardChaining

Prenderequaderno

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Instruction

5s5s

0s

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0s

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UntaughtSteps(caregiver)

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5s

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MasteredStep(child)


0 s

0 s

0 s

Istruzione

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Prenderequaderno

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5s

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5s

0 s

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(child)

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Prenderequaderno

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5s


5s

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Istruzione

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Esempio

• Perl’esempiodelpiantare:l’educatorecompieiprimi9steps edusailprompt solosull’ultimostep,riducendoilprompt finoall’acquisizionedell’ultimarisposta(portarealpianodilavoro).Sipassaall’insegnamentodellostep 9(riempireinnaffiatoio)solodopol’acquisizionedel10.Ilprocessovieneripetutofinoallariduzionedelprompt sullostep 1.

148

Concatenamentoanterogrado

Ilconcatenamento anterogrado (Forwardchaining) consiste nell’insegnamento dellaprimarisposta diuna catena,poidella seconda ecosì viafinchè tutte lecomponenti della catenasono emesse insieme.

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Esempio• Perl’esempiodelpiantare:• Prompt sullostep 1erinforzo,finoall’indipendenzasullostep 1

• Target:step 1+2erinforzo,finoall’indipendenzasullostep 2

• Target:step 1+2+3erinforzo,finoall’indipendenzasullostep 3

• Etc…

TaskAnalysis:TaskAnalysis:

Scrivere ladatasul quaderno

1. Prendere il quaderno

2. Metterlo sul banco

3. Aprire alla pagina vuota

4. Prendere lapenna

5. Scrivere ladata

ForwardChaining

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Prenderequaderno

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TEAM SPORTS FOR THE SEVERELY RETARDED: TRAINING ASIDE-OF-THE-FOOT SOCCER PASS USING A MAXIMUM-TO-MINIMUM

PROMPT REDUCTION STRATEGYPAUL D. LUYBEN, DONNA M. FUNK, JUDY K. MORGAN,

KAREN A. CLARK, AND DALE W. DELUmO

STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK, COLLEGE AT CORTLAND

A program to teach three severely retarded adults to use a side-of-the-foot soccer pass was evaluated.A 9-step stimulus-response chain was taught using forward chaining. In contrast to usual practice,intensive physical prompts were provided initially to teach each response component, then system-atically faded. Approximately 20 lessons (trials) were presented in 20-min sessions. A multiplebaseline across subjects design showed that the three trainees achieved the no-prompt criterion after24, 29, and 22 sessions, respectively. Subanalyses indicated that successive response componentswere learned only after training was implemented. Follow-up data were obtained 57 and 276 dayslater in the training room and in a gymnasium; in both settings, criterion was achieved with fewerthan three reinstructions.DESCRIPTORS: severely retarded, leisure skills activities, sports skills, prompt

Teaching the severely handicapped to partici-pate in sports has the potential to improve motorand social skills, to teach rule-governed behavior,to provide for peer-based competition, and to con-tribute to normalization (Cuvo et al., 1983). Re-cent research describes work to improve the indi-vidual sports behavior of severely handicappedpeople, induding swimming (Best & Jones, 1974;Bundschuh, Williams, Hollingsworth, Gooch, &Shirer, 1972), sprinting, and the standing broadjump (Cuvo et al., 1983). Unfortunately, severelyretarded people are almost entirely exduded fromparticipation in team sports.We developed and evaluated a procedure to

teach severely retarded people to use a side-of-the-foot soccer pass as an initial component in a pro-gram to teach an adapted game of soccer. An im-

A complete description of the training procedures, floorset-up, equipment, observation system, and data analyses isavailable from Paul D. Luyben, Psychology Department,SUNY-Cortland, Cortland, New York 13045.We thank Charles 0. Warren, Provost, John C. Stock-

well, Dean of Arts and Sciences, and the SUNY-CortlandFaculty Research -Program for financial support for this proj-ect; Donna Curtin and Dede Hatch for assistance with thegraphics; and Jennifer King for her assistance in typing themanuscript.

Reprints of this artide are available from Paul D. Luybenat the above address.

portant feature was the use of a maximum-to-minimum prompt reduction procedure in whichphysical prompts were given first and then system-atically faded. Although most researchers have usedthe opposite approach, the minimum-to-maxi-mum strategy (Snell, 1983), pilot work indicatedthat such procedures produced high error rates,slow acquisition rates, and various forms of nega-tive emotional response.Two other considerations supported the use of

a maximum-to-minimum prompt reduction strat-egy. First, we wished to maximize successful per-formance; hence, we used physical prompts at thebeginning of training. In addition, because mosttraining programs in institutions are implementedby direct-care staff, many of whom have little orno training in behavior analysis, we wished to de-velop a fillly articulated, prescriptive procedure thatboth provided and faded prompts systematicallyto assure successfiul progress through the programwhile avoiding prompt dependence (Bailey, 1985).

METHODSubjects and Setting

Three mentally retarded adult males were se-lected based on the criteria that they (a) be undergood instructional control for basic commands, such

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1986,19,431-436 NUMBEP, 4 (wiNTEP, 1986)

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PAUL D. LUYBEN et al.

A GymnasiumA Training Room

Training

Roger

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Dan

15 20 25 30 276

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15 20 25 30 35 "57"276

DaysFigure 1. Percentages of the 92-step training hierarchy at the criterion of three consecutive correct responses across days.

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Figure 2. Number of prompted and unprompted correct responses during the last three lessons for each responsecomponent across sessions. "F" refers to days when balance or floor prompts were faded.

- No PromptO0° - PromptedGS - Get SetLK - LookG_- Grab_SF - Step ForwardTF - Turn FootPUF- Pick Up FootLK - LookPU - Push the BallPA - Pass the Ball

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163

Similarità tra backwardeforwardchaining

Entrambe sono utilizzate perinsegnare unacatenadirisposte,richiedono una taskanalysische divida lacatenaincomponenti stimolo-risposta,insegnando una risposta pervolta,concatenando lerisposte tra loro ed utilizzandoproceduredifadingdelpromptperinsegnareogni componente.

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Differenze tra forwardandbackwardchaining

Con il forwardchainingsi insegna primail primocomportamentonella catenaeconil backwardchainingsi insegna primal’ultimocomportamento nella catena.IlBackwardchainingpermette allo studente dicompletare lacatenainogni prova diinsegnamentoericevere il rinforzonaturale inogni prova.Con il Forwardchainingnonsi completa sempre lacatenadirisposte (oppure lacatenaè completata dalterapista)quindivengono utilizzati rinforzi alternativi finchè nonviene insegnatol’ultimo stepnella catena.Ilrinforzo naturale (es.Scarpaallacciata)si verifica solodopo l’ultimocomportamento dellacatena.

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Totaltaskpresentation

Totaltaskpresentation(presentazionedelcompitototale) lacatenadicomportamenti è messa inatto inuna singola unità.L’intero compito è completato inognisessione diinsegnamento

Questo disolito consiste inprompt“mano su mano”durante il compito ei promptsono ridotti nelle sessionisuccessive, finchè lostudente completa il compitosenza prompt

Esempio

• ChiaramostraaStefanoglistep perlavarelemanicorrettamente,Stefanoosservaeripetelasequenza,mentreChiaradàprompt fisiciediimitazioneperisingolisteps cheStefanononemette.

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ChainingMentre il forwardandbackwardchaininginsegnano uncomportamento della catenapervolta,conlatotaltaskpresentationlostudentericeve promptattraverso l’intero compito inognirisposta che nonpossiede.


THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A CONSTANT TIME-DELAY PROCEDURE TOTEACH CHAINED RESPONSES TO ADOLESCENTS WITH

MENTAL RETARDATION

JOHN W. SCHUSTER, DAVID L. GAST, AND MARK WOLERYUNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY

SHARON GUILTINANJESSAMINE COUNTY, KENTUCKY, SCHOOLS

The effectiveness of a 5-s constant time-delay procedure to teach three chained food preparationbehaviors to four moderately retarded adolescent students was evaluated within a multiple probedesign across behaviors. Results indicate that the procedure was effective in teaching all four studentsto make a sandwich, boil a boil-in-bag item, and bake canned biscuits. The skills maintained withat least 85% accuracy over a 3-month period. Training generalized from the school to the homesetting for the 2 subjects that completed generalization probe sessions. The percentage of errorsacross all skills and students was less than 9%.DESCRIPTORS: time delay, independent living skills, chained responses

Despite the stated benefits of errorless learningand the disadvantages of student failure (Etzel &LeBlanc, 1979), the published literature is virtuallydevoid of studies using errorless or near-errorlessinstructional procedures (time delay) to teachchained, functional tasks (e.g., meal preparationskills) to individuals with developmental disabilities(Snell, 1982). Time delay is an effective, near-errorless instructional procedure that has been usedextensively with discrete behaviors (Handen & Zane,1987).Time delay, described by Touchette (1971), is

a method for transferring stimulus control by sys-tematically varying the delay interval between the

This study is based on a dissertation completed by thefirst author in partial fulfillment of the requirement for anEd.D. degree in the Department of Special Education at theUniversity of Kentucky. A more complete description of thisstudy is available from the first author. Additional data werecollected on student baseline probe performance, measuresof expressive and receptive language acquisition during thecourse of the study, and social validation measures.

Sharon Guiltinan is currently employed at Edison MiddleSchool, South Bend Community School Corporation, SouthBend, Indiana.

Requests for reprints should be sent to John W. Schuster,Department of Special Education, 229 Taylor EducationBuilding, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky40506-000 1.

natural cue and a controlling stimulus. When ini-tially employing a time-delay procedure, the con-trolling stimulus (i.e., a prompt) is paired (0-sdelay) with a second stimulus (i.e., the target stim-ulus) to which control is to be transferred. Oversuccessive trials or sessions, a delay is inserted be-tween the target stimulus and the presentation ofthe controlling response prompt, allowing the stu-dent an opportunity to perform the response in-dependently. This occurs until stimulus control istransferred from the prompt to the task request.Two types of time delay have been used: constanttime delay, in which a fixed number of seconds isinserted between the target stimulus and the prompt;and progressive time delay, in which the delayinterval is gradually increased over trials or sessions.Although time-delay procedures have been effectivein teaching a variety of behaviors to a variety ofstudents (Browder, Morris, & Snell, 1981; Kleinert& Gast, 1982; Kowry & Browder, 1987; Stevens& Schuster, 1987), and is more efficient than thesystem of least prompts (Bennett, Gast, Wolery,& Schuster, 1986; Godby, Gast, & Wolery, 1987),only progressive time delay has been investigatedin teaching chained tasks (Snell, 1982; Walls,Haught, & Dowler, 1982). This investigation eval-uated the effectiveness of a constant time-delay

169

1988,21v169-178 NUMBER2 (summER 1988)

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174 JOHN W. SCHUSTER et al.

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1 3 4 6 8 10 1214 18 22 23 25 27 29 31 3335 37 39 41 47 57 69SESSIONS

Figure 1. Number of steps correctly completed across all skills for Allen, Andrew, Mary, and Erin. The number of stepscompleted independently before the prompt (correct anticipations) are represented by dosed triangles. Correct waits, thoseresponses correctly completed after the prompt, are represented by dosed cirdes.

TIME DELAY WITH CHAINED RESPONSES

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Figure 1. Continued.

i

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Comeutilizzare proceduredichaining

1. Determinare seuna proceduradichainingè adeguata(quindi assicurarsi che il chainingsia laproceduradausare)

2. Sviluppareuna taskanalysis3. Prenderedati sulla baselinedelle abilità dello studente

già presenti4. Scegliere laprocedura dichaining5. Implementare laproceduradichaining6. Continuare adutilizzare il rinforzo dopo che lacatenaè

stata acquisita permantenere il comportamento neltempoeincondizioni distimolo diverse

Esercitazione4• Scrivereunataskanalysis periseguenticomportamenti,usandol’allegato3(sceglierequellopiùadattoperilpropriostudente:– Completareaddizioni conlalineadeinumeri– Preparareilmaterialeperl’inizio dellalezione– Preparareilnecessarioperlamerenda– Identificaregliaggettiviall’internodiuntesto

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Insegnamentodiautonomie edabilitàfunzionaliinambientescolastico

Ilfineultimodell’insegnamentodiqualsiasiabilitàdovrebbeesserepermettereallostudentedimostrareicomportamentiappresirispondendo allevariabilinaturalipresentinell’ambiente.

Questoèverosoprattuttoperstudentipiùgrandi,chehannomenotempoadisposizioneperacquisireilmaggiornumerodiabilitàpossibili.

Insegnamentodiautonomie edabilitàfunzionaliinambientescolastico

Perquantopossibileleabilitàdovrebberoessereinsegnateutilizzandoaiuti(prompt)naturalmentepresentinell’ambiente,perevitaredicreareeccessivadipendenzadallafiguradiriferimentoedassicurarelageneralizzazionedelleabilità.

Perquestomotivodovrebbero essereindividuatiobiettividiinsegnamentorealmentefunzionaliedutilipermigliorarelaqualitàdellavitadellostudente.

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INSEGNAREABILITÁCHEABBIANOUNSIGNIFICATO

• Perchè lastiamo insegnando?

• Ilmio studente potrebbe agire comeunadultosenza questa abilità?

• Può esseremodificata/adattata?

• Potrà interferire nell’integrazione sociale?

• Lesuecomponenti sono tutte naturali/tipiche?

• Migliorerà laqualità della vita?SlidediGloriaSatriale - PAAL

Suggerimenti peril corretto inseganamento eperprevenire ladipendenza dall’aiuto

• Identificare correttamente l’obiettivo daraggiungereegli aiuti (prompt)necessariperraggiungerlo– Es.Insegnare adutilizzare il distributore– Es.Insegnare arispondere alle domande dell’insegnante diclasse

• Utilizzare laminore vicinanza fisica possibile perinsegnare l’abilità targetoprogrammarediaumentareladistanzadopo l’avvenuta acquisizione– Es.Vicinanza durante uneserciziodidattico nuovo vs.acquisito

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Suggerimenti peril corretto inseganamento eperprevenire ladipendenza dall’aiuto

• Preferire promptnonverbali apromptverbaliquandopossibile

• Evitaredidareaiuti eccessivi ononnecessariperportare il comportamento sottoil controllo dellevariabili ambientali naturali– Es.Domande ricevute dall’insegnante diclasse/dauncompagno

– Es.Utilizzodelmateriale dilavoro

Insegnamentodiautonomieedabilitàfunzionaliinambientescolastico

• Esempi diinsegnamentodiabilitàfunzionali– AscoltaremessaggisuWhatsapp erispondere alle

istruzioni ricevute(aumentodellasicurezzapersonale)• Video1

– Spostamentiall’interno dellascuola• Agendavisivasusmartphone• Video2

– Consegnadiunbigliettino contenente informazioni disicurezza

– Utilizzo distributore automatico– Uscitenellacomunità

• Attenzioneadidentificarecorrettamentel’obiettivodellavoronellacomunità

• Videospesa

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GRAZIE!!!

[email protected]

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