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International Journal of OsteoarchaeologyInt. J. Osteoarchaeol.14: 273286 (2004)DOI: 10.1002/oa.761

EcologyandSubsistenceStrategies in

the Eastern ItalianAlpsduring theMiddlePalaeolithic

IVANA FIORE,* MONICA GALA ANDANTONIO TAGLIACOZZO

Soprintendenza Speciale al Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnografico L. Pigorini, Sezione di

Paleontologia del Quaternario e Archeozoologia, P.le Marconi 14, 00144 Roma, Italy

ABSTRACT Italy is very rich in Middle Palaeolithic sites, and the Veneto region ranges among those withthe best archaeozoological information. Most of the Middle Palaeolithic sites are located incaves and rock shelters situated at the mouths of the Alpine valleys, in the piedmont slopes.The two sites that offer the best archaeozoological data are Grotta di Fumane and Grotta S.

Bernardino. Grotta S. Bernardino was occupied alternately by humans and carnivores, inparticular bear. The fauna is largely dominated by ungulate remains, with red and roe deerprevalent over chamois and ibex; elk and giant deer are also present. Among the carnivores,the most frequent species is cave bear followed by lynx and leopard. Furthermore, hare,beaver and marmot are present together with remains of both fish and birds. It is possible thatbears or birds of prey introduced the rare fish remains. In the Mousterian levels, hunting of themost common species was mainly directed towards young adult and adult individuals,suggesting the possibility of selective hunting. Marmot, beaver and probably bear, togetherwith some species of birds (ducks, geese and Galliformes) were also hunted. At GrottaFumane, Mousterian and Aurignacian levels reveal evidence of human activity related tocarcass processing and bone exploitation. The most frequent ungulates are red deer,followed by roe deer and ibex; less frequent are chamois, bovids and giant deer ( Mega-loceros giganteus). Among the carnivores, bears (both Ursus arctosandUrsus spelaeus) arepresent, as are wolf, red fox and hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Hare and marmot are also presenttogether with abundant bird remains. The most common species of bird are: Tetrao tetrix,Crex crexand Pyrrhocorax graculus. Mortality data for ungulates suggest that young adults

and adults were preferentially selected. The faunal assemblage indicates that economic,ecological and climatic changes took place between the Mousterian and the Aurignacianlevels. Copyright 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Italy; hunting; Neanderthal; birds; climatic changes; archaeozoology; palaeoe-

cology; palaeoeconomy

Introduction

Italy has a very rich Middle Palaeolithic record,represented by more than 350 sites, both in cavesand the open air, ranging in time from about130,000 to 30,000 years ago (Bartolomei et al.,

1984; Peretto, 1992; Milliken, 2001; Peresani,2001a; b). They are found only in the Italian

peninsula, both along the present-day coast andin the interior, in valleys and on high mountains.It is possible to recognise six geographical areaswith similar morphological and environmentalcharacteristics and concentrations of archaeolo-gical sites (Figure 1). Unfortunately, studies ofthe faunal remains are few because most researchhas focused on the typology of the retouchedtools in order to assign assemblages to cultural

Copyright# 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 24 March 2003Revised 13 August 2003

Accepted 7 November 2003

* Correspondence to: Soprintendenza Speciale al Museo NazionalePreistorico del Quaternario e Archeozoologia, P.le Marconi 14,00144 Roma, Italy.e-mail: [email protected]


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facies. Moreover, the main goal of many excava-tions was to dig test trenches as deep as possible,while horizontal variability was considered ofsecondary importance. For most sites, publicationof the faunal remains consists simply of a list withthe common species, often without indications ofabundance (rare attempts to quantify the faunalremains are restricted to numbers of identifiedspecimens) and with only generic ecologicalconsiderations. Very few sites have been investi-gated from an archaeozoological point of view.

In this work we will try to summarise thepalaeontological and archaeozoological data fornortheastern Italy, where the Middle Palaeolithicevidence is represented by about 60 sites and

surface finds (Peretto, 1992; Milliken, 2001;Peresani, 2001a; b). Particular attention hasbeen paid to the research undertaken at Grottadi Fumane and Grotta Maggiore di San Bernar-dino. Research on the Middle Palaeolithic in thisarea began at the end of the eighteenth century,but it was only in the 1980s that a new phase ofstudy began, characterised by the developmentof surveys and excavations, and by absolute

dating. Sites are located in the mountainous orhilly sectors that were only marginally touchedby alpine glaciers and only partially affected byperiglacial processes, or in those sectors wherefluvial terraces were not damaged by destructivepost-depositional processes. The Middle Palaeo-lithic sites are located in caves, rock shelters andthe open air, but the latter are strongly affectedby post-depositional processes which caused theloss of much evidence of past human activity, inparticular the destruction of palaeo-living floorsand animal bones. Only a few teeth attributed toNeanderthals have been found in this region(Giacobini, 1992; Villaet al., 2001).

Analysis of the sites

Evidence of Neanderthal activity exists infour distinct zones: open-air sites in the Alps(13001800 m asl); open-air sites in the highMonti Lessini and Altopiano di Asiago (9001600 m asl); caves and rock shelters in thelower Monti Lessini and the Colli Berici

Figure 1. (a) Map of Italy showing the location of six geographical areas with similar morphological and environmentalcharacteristics, and with concentrations of archaeological sites. (b) Detail of the Veneto region. 1: Pagnano dAsolo; 2:Grotta del Broion; 3: Grotta di San Bernardino; 4: Riparo Mezzena; 5: Riparo Tagliente; 6: Grotta della Ghiacciaia; 7:Grotta di Fumane.

274 I. Fiore, M. Gala and A. Tagliacozzo

Copyright# 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 14: 273286 (2004)


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(135600 m asl); and open-air sites at the foot ofthe Venetian Pre-Alps (100200 m asl). The fau-nal remains are all found in caves and rockshelters in the lower Monti Lessini and the ColliBerici (135600 m asl), with the exception of therare mammoth remains from Pagnano dAsolo.

These caves are characterised by thick strati-graphic sequences which suggest that the siteswere reoccupied over long periods of time. TheMousterian industry is characterised by theLevallois technique and is very homogeneous inthe whole area (Peretto, 1992). Its typologicalaspects and its evolution can be followed in thesequence of Riparo Tagliente.

The analysis of the faunal assemblages ofGrotta Maggiore di San Bernardino and of Grottadi Fumane were performed by A.T. (Cassoli &Tagliacozzo, 1994a, b). Faunal remains werecollected in both excavations using water sievingwith a mesh size of 2 mm. All remaining data usedfor the present study were obtained from theliterature (see references); no information is pro-vided by the authors on excavation techniques.

Riparo Tagliente

Riparo Tagliente (Grezzana, Valpantena,Verona), located 250 m above sea-level (asl) inthe Monti Lessini, is considered the type site forthe Mousterian in the Veneto region (Bartolomeiet al., 1982). The whole stratigraphic series,referable to the top of the Upper Pleistocene, isdivided into two main units separated by anerosion surface: (i) deposits bearing Mousterianand Aurignacian industries; (ii) deposits bearingEpigravettian industries. Therefore, two cycles ofhuman occupation are represented, during whichtimes the site was repeatedly reoccupied. Thelower levels (levels 52 to 31), about 3 m thick intotal, contain Mousterian industry. At the top of

the series, level 25 contains Aurignacian industrywith Dufour bladelets. Geological, biological andlithic typological data suggest that the wholeseries corresponds with an entire glacial cycle,between about 60,000 and 30,000 years ago(Bartolomei et al., 1982, 1984; Guerreschi et al.,2002). Site excavation is still in progress, and sofar only a small portion of the Mousterian depos-its has been investigated. Unfortunately, only a

small sample of macromammals (N 2106 frag-ments) from the upper levels of the Mousteriansequence has so far been analysed (Number ofIdentified Specimens [NISP] 306). The abun-dance of roe and red deer, and the presence of elkand marmot, suggests a moderately humid, tem-

perate-cold climate (Table 1). The frequency ofhuman modifications of ungulate remains indi-cates that Neanderthals played an important rolein the accumulation of the faunal assemblage(Thun Hohensteinet al., 2001). The presence ofa significant number of foetal/neonatal ungulatebones suggests that human occupation occurredin the spring.

From a climatic point of view the study of themicromammals is much more complete andallows us to recognise at least three climaticcycles (Bartolomei et al., 1982). The Mousteriansequence begins with a phase where severaldifferent habitats can be identified: forest, wood-land areas and wide open steppe-grasslands. Amarked change can be observed at level 4440where the strictly forest-dwelling species disap-pear and continental Asian steppe species (Micro-tus gregalis, Ochotona cf. pusilla, Sicista sp., Cricetuscricetus) are well-represented. These levels repre-sent the period of greatest dryness. In the upperpart of the sequence, forest and woodland micro-mammals reappear, but they are less numerousthan the open grassland or woody grasslandforms. For the macromammals, the most signifi-cant discovery is the presence of two fragmentsof enamel lamellae of young mammoth (Mam-muthus primigenius) (Bartolomeiet al., 1982). Theseare the only Italian mammoth specimens found sofar that are clearly associated with Mousterianlithic industry, within a well-established strati-graphic context.

Pagnano dAsolo

Remains of a skeleton of Mammuthus primigeniuswere found in 1878 together with a few flakes ofMousterian type (Dal Piaz, 1931) in the alluvialdeposits near Pagnano dAsolo (in the piedmontof the Lessini mountains, Asolo, Treviso). A largepart of the skeleton is preserved, including thetusks, and it is identified as an adult female,between 2532 years old (Reggiani & Sala, 1992).

Middle Palaeolithic Ecology in the Italian Alps 275



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Riparo MezzenaThe rock-shelter of Riparo Mezzena lies at250 m asl on the Lessini mountains, near thetown of Verona. The deposits (about 1.5 to1.7 m thick) were excavated in 1957 (Palma diCesnola, 1961) and are composed of an alternat-ing sequence of sterile and archaeologically richlayers containing macrofaunal bones associated

with a lithic industry. The sequence, according tosedimentary and palaeobotanic evidence, can bedivided into three levels: the basal layer III showstraces of intense human activity, while the anthro-pogenic content markedly diminishes in layer II.Layer I is a more recent deposit, with the presenceof domestic goat and dog (Bartolomeiet al., 1980).

The fauna of layers IIIII (Sala, 1990) is char-acterised by the presence of red deer, roe deer,

Table 1. Remains of mammals from the sites analysed in this paper (xpresent; xxabundant). Grotta di SanBernardino (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994a); Grotta del Broion (Sala, 1980, 1990); Grotta della Ghiacciaia (Sala,1990; Peresani et al., 2001); Riparo Mezzena (Bartolomei et al., 1980; Sala, 1990); Riparo Tagliente (ThunHohenstein et al., 2001); Grotta di Fumane (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994b, and present work)

Species San Bernardino Broion Ghiacciaia Mezzena Tagliente Fumane(NISP) (NISP) (NISP) (NISP) (%) (NISP)

VI VIV IIIII R QO NI 3241 IIIII 37 S BR A

Marmota marmota 16 3 4 6 12 1 xx 2.5 7 11 9Castor fiber 25 5 14 1Hystrix cristata 1Lepus europaeus 2 1Lepuscf. timidusLepussp. 3 2 1 16 2Canis lupus 3 1 2 6 108 4 1 1.2 23 38 23Vulpes vulpes 7 4 2 1 8 9 2 2 0.5 5 15 38Alopex/Vulpes 9Felis silvestris 1 1 1 1Lynx lynx 6 1 3 1 7Panthera leo 1 3Panthera pardus 1 1 3Crocuta crocuta 1 1 5Lutra lutra 1 1Meles meles 1 1Martes martes 7 52 21Martessp. 1 1 3 0.2 1 1 1Mustela erminea 1Mustela nivalis 5 1Mustela putorius 2 3 3 1Mustelasp. 7Ursus spelaeus 89 53 13 x xx 2 5Ursus arctos 2 9 2 9Ursussp. 40 39 5 7 29 95 36Equus caballus 1Stephanorhinussp. 1Sus scrofa 32 1 2Cervus elaphus 91 32 27 2 8 14 9 12.5 346 743 601

Capreolus capreolus 173 15 105 2 4 62.3 347 191 329Alces alces 24 2 7 4 1 1.5Alces vel Megaloceros 35 3 6Megaloceroscf. giganteus 2 1 9 60 67Cervidae 76 26 6 2 4.3 2Bison priscus 1 2Bos primigenius 1 0.7Bos vel Bison 18 5 4 4 5 1 3 2.3 5 17 42Capra ibex 1 6 5 32 167 4 6 3 196 183 156Rupicapra rupicapra 28 36 48 7 44 9 9 11 81 61Caprinae 8 2 7Total 686 236 269 49 312 197 26 28 100% 981 1462 1410




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giant deer, wild boar, and several carnivores(wolf, fox, wild cat, bear and hyena) togetherwith abundant marmot and micromammalremains (Table 1). The absence of ibex andchamois, usually present in the area during theUpper Pleistocene, is difficult to explain. The

abundance of marmot remains might be due to alater den (Bartolomei et al., 1980; Sala, 1990).Forest forms dominate the macro-and micro-mammal assemblages, but typical continental orsteppe rodents are also present (e.g. Sicista andCricetus). This evidence suggests that site occupa-tions could date to the early part of OxygenIsotopic Stage (OIS) 4.

Grotta della Ghiacciaia

The Grotta della Ghiacciaia, located in the Les-sini mountains at 250 m asl (Fumane, Verona),was excavated in 197980 (Bartolomei et al.,1984). The deposit (about 3.5 m thick) is dividedinto three stratigraphic series. The most ancientis referable to the last interglacial period, whilethe remaining two units are dated to the begin-ning of OIS 4 and include faunal remains andMousterian lithic industry of Levallois type.Chronology is based on sedimentological andpalaeobotanical evidence (Peretto and ThunHohenstein, 2002). Ungulate remains (ibex, roedeer and bison) are very scarce and very frag-mentary (Sala, 1990) (Table 1), and no traces ofcarnivore activity have been found, althoughcave bear, wolf and fox were occasionally presentin the cave (Peresani et al., 2001). In contrast,Neanderthal butchery and intentional breakageof the bones are documented. Some of the boneswere also used as retouchers for stone tools.Similar specimens were also found in most othercaves of this area.

Grotta del Broion

Nine metres of deposit were excavated at Grottadel Broion (Lumignano, Colli Berici, Vicenza), at150 m asl. At the bottom layer S, onlyCapra ibexbones are present (Table 1); some of them are stillin anatomical connection and are not associatedwith evidence of human activity (Sala, 1980,

1990). Occasional frequentation during theMousterian is indicated in levels R to I. C14

dating of level I (Bartolomeiet al., 1984; Milliken,2001) gave the following results: 33,800 1300;40,600 1200 (GrN-4638); 46,400 1500(GrN-4638). Bone remains are not particularly

abundant, except those of cave bear and othercarnivores such as the wolf. No taphonomicstudies have been carried out so far, thereforethe role of humans in the accumulation of thefaunal assemblage is not clear.

In the lower level R, there is a striking pre-valence of ibex and chamois, and a relative lack ofred deer, indicating an arid, alpine grasslandenvironment. Similar environmental conditionsprevail in levels QO, where the presence of elkand bovines, and especially of some mustelids,suggests an increase in humidity and forest cover.A clear climatic environmental change is evidentin levels NI where it is possible to note theincrease of red deer (Sala, 1980; 1990).

Grotta Maggiore di S. Bernardino

At Grotta Maggiore di S. Bernardino (Mossano,Colli Berici, Vicenza) there are Middle Pleisto-cene deposits followed by early Upper Pleisto-cene levels containing Mousterian lithicassemblages (Leonardi & Broglio, 1961; Peresani,199596). Some layers were intensively occupiedby humans, with traces of hearths, lithic industryand fauna. The systematic excavations, whichbegan in 1959, were continued in a second phasein 1986 and finished in 1994. The study of thestratigraphic series allowed the identification of asuccession of three main palaeoclimatic cycles(Peresani, 2001a,b). The oldest cycle (unitsVIIIVII, levels LH), on the basis of the U/Thand electron spin resonance (ESR) age (unit VIII:202 30 ka; unit VII: 156 23 ka,), dates to the

late Middle Pleistocene; the intermediate (unitsVIIV, levels GC) and most recent (units IIIII,level B) cycles are dated to the Upper Pleistocene(unit IV: 108 16 ka; unit II: 33 5 and38 5 ka). The intermediate cycle seems to becharacterised by temperate climatic conditionswith broadleaf, wooded landscapes, some openspaces and wetlands (unit VI); this period wasfollowed by a colder climatic phase (units VIV)




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which resulted in the formation of a steppeenvironment. The most recent cycle is repre-sented by a humid phase (which caused watererosion of unit III) and the diffusion of a woodedlandscape (unit II) (Peresani, 2001a, b).

A total of over 14,000 bone remains have been

analysed, of which only 10.1% could be deter-mined to either the species or genus level: about50% of the sample is composed of small bonesplinters shorter than 1 cm in length. The fauna islargely dominated by ungulate remains, with redand roe deer prevailing over chamois and ibex;elk and giant deer are also present (Bartolomei,1960; Sala, 1990; Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994a)(Table 1). Among the carnivores, the most fre-quent species is cave bear followed by rarer fox,wolf, mustelids, wildcat, lynx and leopard. Asingle specimen of rhinoceros and numerouswild boar remains were recovered in the mostrecent levels. Hare, beaver and marmot are pre-sent together with remains of fish. Abundantremains of marmot, particularly from the mostrecent levels, were not analysed because of thelikelihood of them resulting from denning activ-ities. Only marmot bones with a physical statecoherent with the rest of the sample were ana-lysed. The few bird bones (N 25) include 12species reflecting mainly an alpine wooded envir-onment with rocky clearings (black grouse,Tetrao

tetrix and alpine chough,

Pyrrhocorax graculus)

(Table 2). The presence of waterfowl (ducksand geese) is evidence for the existence of humidenvironments and watercourses close to the site.

The cave was occupied alternately by humansand carnivores, in particular bear. Gnaw andpuncture marks produced by carnivores weredetected only on a few bones. It is possible thatthe few fish remains were introduced by bear orbirds of prey present in this assemblage. Morenumerous ungulate bones show traces related tohuman exploitation of the animal carcasses for

alimentary purposes (Malerba & Giacobini,1998). Cut marks on some beaver bones indicateprocessing for pelts. Based on the skeletal por-tions recovered, some of the bears were hunted,as well as bird species which do not live in caves(ducks, geese and Galliformes). However, thestate of bone conservation and scarcity of skeletalelements of birds do not allow a precise determi-nation of which predator(s) originated the fossil

bone assemblage. Most of the common ungulatespecies are represented by young adult andadult individuals, thus suggesting human huntingactivity.

From an ecological point of view, roe deer isprevalent in the lower Unit VI (levels G), withabundant chamois and presence of elk. Among

Table 2. Bird remains from Grotta San Bernardino(Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994a) and Grotta di Fumane(Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994b and present work)

Species San Bernardino Fumane(NISP) (NISP)

VI VIV IIIII S BR A

Anser anser 1Anas platyrhynchos 2 2 1Anas querquedula 1 1Aegypius monachus 1Buteo buteo 1Aquila chrysaetos 1 3 2Falco tinnunculus 1 5Falco vespertinus 1 4Falco subbuteo 1 5Falco eleonorae 1Lagopuscf. mutus 2Tetrao tetrix 1 1 2 3 7 57Alectoris graeca 3 1Perdix perdix 5 1 2Coturnix coturnix 8Rallus aquaticus 2Crex crex 1 4 55Gallinula chloropus 1Recurvirostra avosetta 1Scolopax rusticola 2Athene noctua 1Asio otus 1 22Aegolius funereus 2Apus melba 1Dendrocopus leucotos 1Ptyonoprogne rupestris 2Turdus pilaris 3Turdus iliacus 2Turdus viscivorus 2 9

Oriolus oriolus 1Garrulus glandarius 4Pica pica 2 3Nucifraga caryocatactes 1Pyrrhocorax graculus 5 31 22 169Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 1Corvus monedula 1Corvus corone 2Corvus corax 1Montifringilla nivalis 5 4Loxia curvirostra 2 1Pinicola enucleator 1Total 6 4 15 53 42 375




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the other mammals there is a relatively highfrequency of beaver and presence of marmot.Among the birds there is a notable absence ofcorvids (cold climate) and presence of aquaticbirds and species typical of mountain woodlands.The environment is mainly wooded, with some

wide open and humid areas. The climate wastemperate but with a tendency towards coldconditions. Units VIV (levels FC) show adecline in cervids, the diffusion of caprines anda marked increase in cave bear remains, as well asthe presence of marmot. The mammal assem-blage reflects an open habitat with colder andmore arid climate; the presence of humid zones isindicated by the beaver, the otter and the mal-lard. In units IIIII (level B) there is a markedincrease in cervids, and the first appearance ofwild boar, as well as the presence of elk andbeaver. Among the few caprines, chamois is moreprevalent than ibex. The presence of hare, mar-mot and, among the birds, alpine chough, nut-cracker and black grouse, indicates an alpineenvironment, and a humid phase with a tempe-rate-cold climate, with a woodland environmentin the presence of alpine grasslands.

Grotta di Fumane

The Grotta di Fumane is located in the LessiniMountains (Veneto Pre-Alps) at 350 m asl. Sys-tematic excavations were started in 1988 by A.Broglio and M. Cremaschi. The cave, which is13 m deep and 4 m wide at the entrance, wasalmost completely filled up by nearly 10 m ofUpper Pleistocene sediments. When researchoriginally started the entrance was hidden bydetrital deposits. Excavations have concentratedon the entrance and the area in front of the cave;so far the Aurignacian levels (A3A1, D7D1cbase) have been excavated over a surface of

40 m

2

, while the underlying Mousterian levels(S, BR, A12A4II) have been excavated down tobedrock over a much smaller area. The interior ofthe cave is known to contain bones and lithicartefacts, but is not yet excavated (Peresani &Sartorelli, 1998; Broglio & Cremaschi, 199899;Broglio, 2001).

The lower occupation levels contain Mouster-ian assemblages, the most recent ones (A12A4II)

characterised by Levallois debitage (Peresani &Sartorelli, 1998). Above, a thin level (A4I) con-tains an assemblage with an Uluzzian typebacked piece. Levels A3 to D1c-base show anintense Aurignacian occupation. The final, upper-most levels of the cave (D1c and D1d) show rare

traces of human activity, abundant evidence ofcarnivore presence and few Gravettian stonetools. The Aurignacian and Mousterian living-floors can be grouped into four lithological andpedological macro-units (Broglio & Cremaschi,199899; Broglio, 2001; Broglio et al., 2002;Peresani & Tagliacozzo, 2002). The Mousterianlevels, dated between 80,000 and 38,000 yearsBP, are included in three units in the lowermiddle part of the deposit: S (S9S1), mainlyresidual sands with boulders and stones, originat-ing under the influence of a damp but unstabletemperate climate (level S7: TL age 79 13 ka);BR (BR121), thermoclastic breccia with loessmarking a climatic shift towards cooler condi-tions (level BR11: TL age 57 8 ka; level BR 12:TL age 55 7 ka); A (A12A4II), thermoclasticbreccia originating during a moderately damptemperate climate which became progressivelycooler and drier (level A6: 50,000 8000 TL age;levels A5A6: C14 age 38,250 700 and38,8000 750) (Peresani, 2001a; Broglio et al.,2002).

So far, only the bones collected from 1988 to1996 have been analysed. In total, about 7500 ofthe bones (4.5% of the total number ofremains, N 160,000) have been identified tospecies and/or genus level. In the Mousterian andearly Aurignacian levels, bone remains are theresult of human activity, but there is certainly acontribution from large carnivores judging by thepresence of gnaw marks (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo,1992, 1994b; Malerba & Giacobini, 1995). Forthe main ungulate species all skeletal elements arepresent, suggesting the introduction of complete

carcasses. The taphonomic analysis detectedtraces of human activity related to carcassprocessing and bone exploitation (Malerba &Giacobini, 1995). The frequency and localisationof these traces allowed recognition of repetitivepatterns for some actions. Bone fragmentation ismore evident in the Mousterian levels than in theAurignacian ones. Relatively more evidence ofbone burning occurs in the Mousterian levels. In




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all three units the most frequent ungulates areCervus elaphus and Capreolus capreolus, followed byCapra ibex(Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994b) (Table1).Rupicapra rupicapra and bovids are less frequent.Remains of a large cervid were attributed to thegiant deer (Megaloceros giganteus), as suggested by

morphological features that distinguish it fromthe elk. Among the bovids, Bison priscus is cer-tainly present but most of the remains, whichincluded several young individuals, could not bedetermined to species level. Only one horse andtwo wild boar specimens were found. Among thecarnivores, bothUrsus arctos and Ursus spelaeusarepresent, together with red fox, wolf and hyena. Aspecimen from the Mousterian levels attributedtoHystrix cristata represents the first discovery ofthis species, typical of warm temperate climate,during the last glaciation in northern Italy.Mountain hare and marmot are also present.Ungulate mortality data indicate that during theMousterian, young adults and adults were pre-ferentially selected, while in the Aurignacianthere is an increase in the number of young andold individuals due to the greater influence ofcarnivores as bone accumulators. Carnivores aremore abundant in the Aurignacian levels.

Particularly interesting is the presence, in UnitBR, of living floors where the remains of distal

limbs of ibex and red deer, still in anatomicalconnection, were recovered. These floors havebeen interpreted as areas where parts discardedduring skinning and butchering activities accu-mulated.

Remains of 35 species of bird were found; the

most common species throughout the depositare: black grouse (Tetrao tetrix); corncrake (Crexcrex); and alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus)(Table 2). There are also several species ofnocturnal and diurnal raptors (mainly Long-earedOwl, Asio otus), Galliformes and small Passeri-formes. Columbiformes, often numerous inpeninsular sites where they indicate temperateclimatic conditions, are absent at Fumane.

Initial taphonomic analysis indicates onlyuncertain anthropic marks and gnawing marksproduced by carnivores. A more detailed analysisis in progress, aimed at assessing whether or notbones were digested by birds of prey. Particularlyimportant is the presence of striations producedby a stone tool on the ungual phalanx of a goldeneagle (Aquila chrysaetos) from the base of level A(Figure 2). The marks were probably producedwhen the talon, or its keratin sheath, was beingremoved, possibly for use as an ornament. This isthe first clear evidence of human modificationson bird remains from a Mousterian site in Italy.

Figure 2. Grotta di Fumane. (a)Aquila chrysaetosungual phalanx; the area with cut marks is indicated by the arrow.(b) Cut marks morphology as seen under stereomicroscope.




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Similar striations on the third posterior phalanxof a golden eagle have previously been identifiedin Mousterian levels from Pech de lAze I inFrance (Mourer-Chauvire, 1975) and at theGrotte du Hye` ne (Mourer-Chauvire, personalcommunication).

The faunal assemblage contains evidence ofeconomic, ecological and climatic changes bothwithin the Mousterian and between the Mouster-ian and the Aurignacian (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo,1994b). In lower unit S, cervid remains dominatethe caprines, reflecting the wider extension ofwoodland habitats and a moderately temperate-humid climate (Figure 3). Periods of colder andmore arid climate with more open, alpine grass-lands are present in the basal part of S9 and inlevel S3, where remains of ibex and chamois aremore numerous. This period is followed, in S21,by a more humid and temperate phase indicatedby an increase in the number of roe deer remains.This temperate phase continues in the overlyingbreccia unit, where cervids dominate once again.

A more marked presence of caprines is recordedbeginning in BR6, with a maximum in BR1,attesting to a climatic shift towards cold andarid conditions. A cool climatic moment, withalternating forest and alpine grasslands environ-ments, is reflected in the basal part of Unit A

(A1312) where cervids are prevalent, but whereibex, chamois and marmot are well represented.Birds indicative of open alpine environmentsinclude the alpine chough and ptarmigan. Pro-gressive increases in the number of cervids, tothe detriment of open habitat species, occurs inA118 and reflects a climatic shift to temperate-humid conditions and the expansion of woodlandand forest habitats. The prevalence of suchhabitats continues until the end of the Mouste-rian series (level A4), with a trend towards coolerconditions.

A marked change towards a coldarid climateis evident in the Aurignacian levels, with thedevelopment of alpine grassland and steppeenvironments, although humid and wooded areas

Figure 3. Grotta di Fumane. Frequency of the ungulates in the different levels of the stratigraphic sequence (Cassoli &Tagliacozzo, 1994b and present work).




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are still present. In the Aurignacian levels there isalso a clear increase in bird remains; some ofthese are probably the result of natural accumula-tions, indicating less intense human occupation.In these levels some cold species are present, likethe rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the

ptarmigan (Lagopus cf. mutus) and the snowy owl(Nyctea scandiaca). Furthermore, an increase inopen habitat species suggests the expansion ofgrassland and alpine steppe.

Conclusion

Neanderthal ecology

Although the North-East is better investigated andricher in sites than other regions of Italy, few sitesin this region contain animal bones, and not allhave been analysed with the same methodology.Furthermore, the scarcity of absolute dates doesnot allow correlation between many of the sites.Where stratigraphic sequences with several occu-pation levels are documented, it is possible toidentify variations in the frequency of different un-gulates attributable to climate change (Figure 4).

It is possible to suggest the following chron-ological correlations between the main depositson the basis of published radiometric dates,biostratigraphical evidence and the Mousterianlithic industries:

i. Level VI of the Grotta S. Bernardino, datingbetween 156 23 and 108 16 ka, and levelR of Grotta del Broion are certainly the oldestand can be traced back to the end of theMiddle Pleistocene.

ii. Levels V and IV of Grotta S. Bernardino arereferable to OIS 5 (Last Interglacial).

iii. All the remaining levels are distributedbetween OIS 4 and 3 (80,00040,000 yearsago). In this latter period, levels S and BRfrom Fumane, and probably levels Q Ofrom Broion, are the oldest. Absolute dating

allows us to establish the following sequencefor the most recent levels: Broion NI,Fumane A, S. Bernardino IIIII and Taglientelevel 37; however, simultaneous occupationof the different caves is probable.

The data presented here (Table 3) indicatethat the main ungulates present during the Mous-terian period are: Cervus elaphus (absent only at

Figure 4. Frequency of the ungulates in some of the different sites considered in this paper. Grotta di San Bernardino(Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994a); Grotta del Broion (Sala, 1980, 1990); Riparo Tagliente (Thun Hohensteinet al., 2001);Grotta di Fumane (Cassoli & Tagliacozzo, 1994b and present work).




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Grotta della Ghiacciaia) andCapra ibex(absent atRiparo Mezzena). There is a constant presence of

Bos/Bison, but with only few elements. Rupicaprarupicapra and Capreolus capreolus are not alwayspresent but are sometimes abundant. Megaloceros

giganteus,Alces alces, andSus scrofaare not constant,but they are represented by few elements.

Equuscaballus, Mammuthus primigenius and rhinoceros arealways very rare. In Italy, ungulates are often usedas indicators of climatic and environmental con-ditions. Their ecological meaning is shown inTable 4. Ecological reconstruction based onungulates is influenced by human activity, how-ever, such as hunting and butchering strategies,carcass transport, site function, and so on. Amongthe other mammals hare, marmot and beaver are

an almost constant presence, but always with fewelements. A specimen attributed toHystrix cristatafrom Fumane represents the only discovery of thisspecies, indicative of warm, temperate climates,for the glacial period in northern Italy. Among thecarnivores, cave bear is always present (in some

levels, caves were used as dens), fox, wolf, mus-telids and brown bear are almost always present,while hyena, lynx, leopard, lion and wild cat arerarer. The presence, in some levels, of Asianmicrofauna typical of steppe environments andavifauna associated with arctic tundra indicatescold peaks during the last glaciation.

In northern Italy, during OIS 4 and OIS 3, theenvironment was mainly woodland (presence ofnumerous cervids, bear, carnivores) with tempe-rate-cold climate. Some colder and drier periodsand the diffusion of steppe and grassland habitatsis indicated by the marked presence of ibex,chamois and marmot at low altitude, and thepresence of steppe-dwelling micromammals andtundra-dwelling birds. The transition from theMousterian to the Aurignacian coincides with aclear climatic and environmental shift towards anarid and cold climate, with prevalence of openhabitat species.

Exploitation of animal resources

Modern archaeozoological data are available forthree caves (Tagliente, S. Bernardino andFumane). At other sites there are no data availableon patterns of mortality, butchering marks, bodypart composition, role of carnivores, and so on.The analyses carried out to date indicate thathunted species were those most common in thespecific environmental and climatic conditions(Figure 5). S. Bernardino and Fumane show a

Table 3. Presence of the main mammal species innortheastern Italy during the Mousterian

Species Presence

Red deer Abundant. Absent only at Grottadella Ghiacciaia

Ibex Abundant. Absent only at RiparoMezzenaBos/bison Constant presence, few elementsChamois Less constant presence, some

times considerable abundanceRoe deer Less constant presence, some

times considerable abundanceGiant deer, elk, Less constant presence,wild boar few elementsHorse, rhinoceros Very rareand mammuthusCave bear Constant presenceFox, wolf, mustelids Less constant presenceand brown bearHyena, lynx, leopard, More rarelion and wild cat

Hare, marmot, beaver Almost constant presence,few elementsHystrix Present only at Grotta di Fumane

Table 4. Ungulates used as indicators for climatic and environmental conditions in Italy

Species Climate Environment

Elk Coldhumid Marshy clearingsIbex Coldarid Rocky and alpine grasslandsChamois Coldless arid Alpine grasslands steppeRed and giant deer Temperatecold ForestsRoe deer Temperate Woodlands and forestsWild boar Temperatehumid Woodlandshumid clearings




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similar ungulate exploitation model, while datafrom Broion are probably influenced by carnivoreactivity. For the ungulates, young adult and adultindividuals were preferentially selected. AtGrotta di Fumane complete ungulate carcasses(red deer, roe deer, ibex, chamois) were broughtback to the site. The capture of hare, beaver,marmot and some carnivores (bear, fox, muste-lids) is well documented and could indicate therecovery of pelts. The exploitation of birds isdocumented in a single instance (cut marks on anungual phalanx of golden eagle), but it is possiblethat some species of Galliformes and Anseri-formes were hunted. There are only scanty datarelating to possible fishing activities.

There are no faunal data from the open airsites. If the mammoth remains and Mousterian

artefacts at Pagnano dAsolo are associated withone another, this would be the only butcheringsite of similar age in Italy. The thick stratigraphicsequences in the caves of the lower Monti Lessiniand the Colli Berici suggest that these sites werereoccupied over long periods of time, and thewide range of activities that were carried out,including tool production and animal butchery,classifies them as residential camps.

Acknowledgements

This work was possible thanks to the fundamen-tal help of P.F. Cassoli, who contributed to theactivity of this Institution until his death inMarch 2003. Photographs were taken by D.Rosa at the photo laboratory of the MuseoNazionale Preistorico Etnografico L. Pigorini ofRome. Thanks are due to F. Alhaique for theEnglish translation. We thank the two anon-ymous referees, whose critical reviews improvedthis work and raised questions that enabled us toinvestigate previously overlooked aspects of ourresearch.

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