Piccone - Gramsci's Marxism. Beyond Lenin and Togliatti

8/12/2019 Piccone - Gramsci's Marxism. Beyond Lenin and Togliatti

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G R A M S C I 'S M A R X I S M : B E Y O N D L E N I N A N D T O G L I A T T I

PAU L PICCONE

T o w a r d a M e d i te r ra n e a n C o m m u n i s m ?

I f, in t h e h i s t o r y o f M a r xi sm , t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e E r f u r t p r o g ra m t o 1 9 1 4 c a n

be c ha r a c t e r i z e d as the a ge o f t he S e c ond I n t e r na t iona l , f r om 1917 to t he

midd le 1920s tha t o f Le n in ism, f r om 1924 to e a r ly 1950s tha t o f S t a li n ism,

a nd f r om the l a te 1950s to e a r ly 1970s tha t o f Ma o i sm, t he 1980s ar e l i kely

to u she r i n wh a t m a y be c a ll e d a ne w pha se o f G r a m sc i sm . Th i s is a r e su l t

o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n w h e r e i n b o t h R u s s i a n a n d C h i n e s e c o m m u n i s m

h a ve e x h a u s t e d t h em s e l v es a n d h a v e f o u n d a c c o m o d a t i o n w i t h in a w o r l d

o r de r s t il l unde r a U .S . he g e m ony , ba sed on ne w a nd no t y e t f u l ly de ve lope d

impe r i a l i s t r e l a t i ons s t r onge r t ha n e a r l i e r ve r s ions a nd immune to t r a d i -

t i ona l c ha l le nge s. Th e S e c ond I n t e r na t iona l f oun d i ts h i s to r i c a l l imi t in t he

po l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t ion o f t he l a bo r move me n t w i th in l a t e c a p i t a l i sm; S t a l i n i sm

r a n ou t o f ga s w i th t he i ndus t r i a l i z a t ion o f R uss i a ; a nd Ma o i sm lo s t i t s

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c u t t i n g e d g e w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f d e - c o lo n i z a ti o n . Y e t

Gr a msc i sm, und e r s too d a s t h e s t r a t e gy o f soc ia l is t t r a ns f o r m a t ion in f u l ly

indus t r ia l i z ed soc i et ie s , be c om e s r e l e va n t p r e c i se ly i n t he a ge o f c ybe r n a t e d

impe r ia l ism. No twi th s t a nd ing i ts h i s to r i c a l r oo t s i n t he r e a li t ie s o f pos t- W or ld

W a r I c e n t r a l E u r ope , Gr a msc i ' s a r t i c u l a t i on o f M a r x ism is l i ke ly t o p r ov ide a

f r a m e w o r k w i t h in w h i c h t o r e c a s t t h e p r o b l e m o f e m a n c i p a t i o n i n a c o n t e x t

whe r e S ou the r n Eur op e be c om e s the ma in ide o log ic a l a nd p o f i ti c a l ba t t l e -

field.

F r om the Ea s t Ge r ma n up r i s ing o f 1953 th r ough the Hunga r i a n R e vo lu -

t i on in 1956 , dow n to C z e c hos lova k ia i n 1968 , t he R uss ia n t r a ge dy ha s

be c ome a l l t oo c l e a r : de - S ta l in i z a t ion i s imposs ib l e w i thou t d i sma n t l i ng the

e n t i r e soc io - e c onom ic a ppa r a tu s , t hu s p r e c ip i t a t i ng ma jo r po l i ti c a l uphe a va l .

C onse que n t ly , no s ign i f i c a n t i n t e r na l r e f o r ms c a n be c a r r i e d ou t t o de -

c e n t r a l i z e p r oduc t ion a nd de c i s ion - ma k ing , up - g r a de a g r i c u l tu r e , a nd

e l imina te wa s t e i n o r de r t o impr ove the pe r e nn ia l ly de f ic i e n t c onsum e r - goods

Department o f Sociology Washington University


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s e c t o r a nd i n s t i t u t i ona l i z e l ong - ove r due po l i t i c a l f r e e dom s . Bu t t he s y s t e m

m us t de l ive r a t l e a s t a m i n i m um o f go ods a nd s e rv i c es t o p r e ve n t t he

ge r m i na t i on o f s e r i ous i n t e r na l d i s s a t i s f a c t i on l i a b l e t o de ve l op i n t o po l i t i c a l

t u r m o i l . T h e g r ow i ng i n t e g r a t i on o f Rus s i a i n t o t he o r b i t o f W e s te r n i m -

pe r i a l i s m t h r ough t he pu r c ha s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l , h i gh - t e c hno l ogy , a nd

s pe c i a l i z e d c ons um e r goods i s a s uc c e s s f u l s ho r t - r un s o l u t i on t o t he s e

p r ob l e m s . T h i s f a i l u r e t o t r a ns c e nd S t a l i n i s m , r e s u l t i ng i n a pe r pe t ua l s oc i o -

e c on om i c ba c kw a r dne s s e l i m i na b l e on l y t h r ou gh a p r oc e s s o f ge nu i ne li be ra l i-

z a t i on , e n t a il s a h i gh p o l i t ic a l p r i c e : t he l o ss o f a ny l inge r ing r e vo l u t i on a r y

p r e t e ns e f o r t he r e s t o f t he w or l d a nd t he de g r a da t i on o f Rus s i a t o t he l e ve l

o f a s u b - im p e r i a li st p o w e r - n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a g r o w in g m i l i t a ry m i g h t a n d

par t i a l in te rn a t ion a l successes in som e a reas of the Th i rd W or ld (e .g . , An gola

a nd I nd i a ) .

A r ough l y s i m i l a r f a t e be f e l l t he Ch i ne s e m ode l , a l t hough f o r s om e w ha t

d i f f e r e n t r e a sons . T he S i no - S ov i e t sp l i t de r i ve d f r o m t he C h i ne se r e f u sa l t o

f a ll in l ine w i t h t he r e s t o f E a s t e r n E u r o pe i n a r e l a t ion o f c r ude i m pe r i a l is m

w i t h Rus s ia . W ha t m a de t he M a o i st m od e l popu l a r e ve n be f o r e t he C u l t u ra l

Re v o l u t i on w a s i t s i n s is t e nc e on a M a r x i s m w h i c h , un l i ke t he Rus s i a n va r i e t y ,

d i d n o t r e d u c e c o m m u n i s m t o i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d s o m e c o m p l e m e n t a r y

dub i ous t e c hno l og i c a l p r og r e s s a u t om a t i c a l l y gua r a n t e e i ng hum a n e m a nc i pa -

t io n . I t d i d n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e g o a l o f c o m m u n i s m is n o t a w h o p p i n g G N P ,

bu t a ne w t yp e o f hu m a n be i ng a nd a ne w c i v i li z a ti on . Y e t , i t r e m a i ne d

ta l in i s t i n i ts c o r e - e s pe c i al ly w i t h r e ga r d t o a n opp o r t un i s t i c a nd un -

p r i nc i p l e d f o r e i gn po l i c y r e m i n i s c e n t o f S t a l in ' s w o r s t b l unde r s i n t he 1930s.

G e a r e d t o i ndus t r i a l ly ba c k w a r d s oc ie t ie s s uc h a s Ch i na , t he M a o i s t m o de l

turned out to be l a rge ly i r re l evant in indus t r i a l i zed cap i t a l i s t soc ie t i e s where

t h e p l a t it u d e s o f t h e R e d B o o k c a n n o t c o m p e t e w i t h h i g hl y s o p h i s ti c a te d

cul tura l indus t r i e s .

A l t ho ugh t h is p r oc e s s o f t he o r e t i c a l a nd po l i t ic a l i nvo l u t i on ha d a l r e a dy

be c om e ob v i ous by t he la t e 1960s - w h i c h e xp l a i n s t he e x t r a o r d i na r y s uc ce s s

o f a be r r a t i ons s uc h a s A l thus s e r i a n i sm a t t ha t t i m e a s e f f o r t s to po l i t i c a ll y

r e ha b i l i t a te o r t ho do x M a r x i s m w i t h i n a W e s te r n c o n t e x t 1 - a s y s t e m a t i c

r e c ons i de r a t i on o f M a r x i s m i n t he W e s t f r om t he v i e w po i n t o f t r a d i t i ona l

c om m un i s t pa r t i e s c ou l d be g i n on l y a f t e r t he t he o r e t i c a l a nd po l i t i c a l t h r u s t s

o f t h e 1 9 6 8 m o v e m e n t s h a d e i t h er e x h a u s t e d t h e m s e l v e s o r h a d b e e n

success fu l ly repres sed . Thus , Pe r l in i i s cor rec t in see ing the r i s ing popula r i ty

o f G r a m s c i s m in I t a l y a nd F r a nc e a s p r e c i s e ly t he s pe a r he a d o f t h i s s y s t e m a t i c

r e c ons i de r a t i on o f M a r x i sm , a nd the ' r e 4a un c h i ng ' o f G r a m s c i a s a n

o p e r a t i o n w h i c h n o t b y a c c i d en t c o m e s a b o u t in a m o m e n t o f al le g ed ( b u t

n o t t r u e ) e c li p se o f t h e t h e m e s o f 1 9 6 8 a n d a i m i n g a t su b s t it u t in g t h e m w i t h


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a pse udo- l e f t i de o logy - t he ma ske d a po logy f o r r e f o r mism . ' 2 One ne e d

o n l y s u r v e y t h e w i n d o w - d is p la y s o f R o m a n a n d P a ri si an b o o k s t o r e s c r a m m e d

wi th o f f i c i a l ly and uno f f i c i a l l y s a nc t ione d wor ks on o r by Gr a msc i t o r e a li z e

tha t such i s a t l eas t pa r t ia l ly the case . But Pe r l in i and tho se inc reas ingly ra re r

r e mn a n t s o f t he I t a li a n e x t r a - pa r l i a me n ta r y l e f t no t ye t f u l ly r e in t e g r a t e d

w i t h i n t h e r a p id l y e x p a n d i n g u m b r e l la o f t h e I ta l ia n C o m m u n i s t P a r t y a re

b l i n d e d b y t h e i r h a t r e d f o r t h e l o n g r e f o r m i s t h i s t o r y o f It a li a n C o m m u n i s m .

Th e y r e duc e Gr a msc i ' s Ma r x i sm ( wh ic h ha s a lwa ys be e n c la ime d by the pa r ty

a s i ts h i sto r ic a l ma t r ix ) t o a pa r a -Ma r x i sm de r ive d f r om the r e ve r sa l o f

Ma r x i sm i t s e l f i n to i de al ism, '3 a nd G r a msc i sm to t he i de o log ica l o the r ne s s o f

R uss ia n po l i c y in W e s ter n Eur ope se e k ing the i n t e g r a t ion o f t he C om m on

M a r ke t i n to t he R uss i an e c on om ic a nd soc io -po l i ti c a l o r b i t . 4

Gram sc i ' s w ork i s a lmo st idea l ly su i ted fo r such an ideologica l r ev i ta f iza t ion

o f W e s ter n C om m uni s t P a r ti e s s ee k ing a d i f f i c u l t b l e nd o f c on t i nu i ty w i th

the i r r e f o r mis t pa s t a nd n e w pe r spe c tive s f o r t he p r e se n t on the e ve o f t he i r

pa r t i c ipa t ion in bou r ge o i s gove r nme n t s , wh i l e c lo th ing the who le p r o j e c t

w i th in a r e vo lu t io na r y the o r e t i c a l ga rb . B u t a l t hou gh suc h a n ope r a t ion m a y

seem viab le in the abs t rac t , i t i s a lmost imposs ib le to ca r ry out in the present

po f i t i c a l c on te x t . The l i ke ly c oun te r - p r oduc t ive r e su l t i s t ha t , i n sp i t e o f

i t s el f , t he Gr a msc ia n ide o log ic al r e - a r ma m e n t und e r t a ke n by the I t a l ia n a nd

F r e nc h C ommuni s t P a r t i e s w i l l ge ne r a t e t he po l i t i c a l spa c e f o r a p r a c t i c a l

r e c ons ide r a t ion o f t he me a n ing o f soci a li sm in t he l a te 1970s a nd e a r ly 1980s .

Eve n i f i n sp i r e d by the da r ke s t oppor tun i s t i c c a l c u l a t i ons , t he e xpa ns ion o f

the l ong - s t a nd ing in t e r na l f r on t i s t po l i c y no t on ly t e nde n t i a l l y c he c kma te s

t r a d i t i ona l c e n t r a li s t pos tu r e s , b u t qua l i t a ti ve ly c ha nge s t he ve r y c ha r a c t e r o f

the pa r t ie s involved . Thus , the de -S ta l in iza t ion tha t has remained unfu l f i l led

in Eas te rn Europe , Russ ia and China , f inds i t s r ea l iza t ion in the theory and

pr a c t i c e o f t he I t a l i a n , F r e nc h a nd S pa n i sh C ommuni s t P a r t i e s . Un l ike i t s

h i s to r ic a l p r e c e d e n t i n t he S e c o nd I n t e r na t iona l , t h is ne w b le nd o f r e vo lu t ion -

a r y ( Gr a msc ia n ) r he to r i c a nd r e f o r m is t p r a c ti c e so ha t e d by the ex t r a -

pa r l i a me n ta r y l e f t is li ke ly t o p r ov ide the on ly hop e f o r a r e vo lu t iona r y

soc ia l is t a l te r na t ive i n a wo r ld he ge m on iz e d b y the ne w f o r ms o f impe r i a l ism

ba se d on sc i e n t i f i c a nd t e c hno log ic a l domina t ion a nd p r o t r a c t e d invo lu t ion

by t r a d i ti ona l soc i a l i s t c oun t r i e s . I t is f o r t h is r e a son tha t t he v ind ic a tion

o f t he ge nu ine ly r e vo lu t iona r y d ime ns ion o f Gr a msc i i s o f t he u tmos t

u r ge nc y - e spe c ia l ly i n l igh t o f t he wor k o f the F r a nk f u r t S c ho o l a nd o f

t h e n e w c o n d i t io n s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e o n g o i n g p o s t -V i e t n a m r e s tr u c t u ri n g

o f im per ia l ism .


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T h e G e n e si s o f G r a m s c i sm

Gr a msc i ' s wor ks ha ve ha d a s t ra nge h i s to r y . H i s imp r i sonm e n t f r om 1926 up

to h i s de a th , a nd the c om bina t ion o f bo t h F a sc i sm a nd S ta l in i sm, suc c e e de d

in suppress ing h is ma tu re pr i son w r i tings un t i l we l l a f te r the end of W or ld

War I I s - and t he n the Gram sc ian he r i tage becam e so successfu l ly ins t ru-

m e n ta l i z e d a s t he t he o r e t i c a l su ppo r t f o r the po l i c ie s o f t he I ta l ia n C om-

m un i s t P a r ty t ha t P e r l in i is ri gh t in c l aiming tha t t o de a l w i th Gr a m sc i

me a ns , f i r s t a nd f o r e m os t , c om ing to g rip s w i th [ t ha t ] P a r ty . ' 6 W ha t

ha pp e ne d to Gr a msc i c lo se ly par a ll e ls wh a t ha ppe n e d to M a r x a f t e r h i s de a th

whe n Enge l s , i n f u r the r e l a bo r a t ing a nd popu la r i z ing h i s t hough t , de f use d i t

o f m os t o f i t s r e l e va n t f e a tu r e s , pos i t iv i z e d the d i a le c t ic , a nd ge ne r a lly pa ve d

the wa y f o r t he Ma r x isms o f t he S e c ond In t e r na t iona l . 7 I n Tog l i a t t i,

Gram sc i fou nd h is Enge ls . W hereas Marx and Engels were tw o Ge rm an

e mig r~s i n Eng la nd , Gr a m sc i a nd T og l i a t t i wo r ke d c lo se ly t oge th e r f r om 1911

a t l e a s t up to 1922 , f i rs t a s s tude n t s i n Tu r in , a nd the n a s mi l i t a n t s i n t he

I ta l ian C om m unis t Pa r ty . In b o t h cases , the re was a l i f e long f r iendship

r e su lt i ng in t he two su r v ivo r s, Enge ls a nd T og l i a t t i, be c oming the he i r s a nd

le a d ing in t e r p r e t e r s o f Ma r x a nd Gr a msc i r e spe c t ive ly .8 B u t b o t h T o g l i a t t i

a n d E n g el s t u r n e d o u t t o b e m u c h m o r e m o d e s t t h i n k e rs t h a n t h e i r re s p ec t iv e

f ri e nd s , w i t h t h e u n f o r t u n a t e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t i t t o o k o v e r h a l f a c e n t u r y t o

r e d i sc ove r Ma r x , a nd a lmos t a s l ong to p r ope r ly e va lua t e Gr a msc i ' s t hough t .

Thu s , t he r e su lt i ng mu l t i p l i c i t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i ons o f M a r x ha s it s c ou n te r p a r t

in G ramsc i . As Sa lvador i has pu t i t .

W h a t h a s h a p p e n e d t o G r a m s c i i s t h a t h e h a s b e c o m e a f o u n t a i n f r o m

whic h e ve r yone t a ke s wha te ve r wa te r he ne e ds : f o r some he i s t he f a the r

o f a c o n c e p t i o n o f a u t h e n t i c p r o l e t a r i a n d e m o c r a c y ; f o r o t h e r s , h e i s a

s t r ic t S ta l in is t; fo r s t il l o the r s , h e i s a soc ia l -dem ocra t , m ayb e even of a

r igh t -w ing va r i e ty ; t he r e a r e t hose wh o c ons ide r h im a n o r th od ox Ma r x is t-

Le n in i s t ; wh i l e i n t he e ye s o f o the r s , t o c onc lude , he i s a n inc o r r ig ib l e

ide al is t who ha s ne ve r un de r s too d a n y th ing o f M a r x ism - o r j u s t a bou t . 9

Ye t , t h e o f f i c ia l I ta l ia n C om mu ni s t P a r ty i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d id be c o m e the

dom ina n t one , s e t ti ng the pa c e f o r a ll o th e r i n t e r p r e t a t i ons . 1~ A l thou gh th is

P a r ty ha s a lwa ys be e n , a nd r e ma ins , the m os t op e n a nd in t e l le c tua l ly dyn a m ic

o f a ll C om m uni s t pa r t ie s , it s in t e r p r e t a t i ons o f G r a msc i we r e hope le s s ly

one - side d . Thu s , no tw i th s t a n d ing a n imme nse l i t e r a tu r e on the m a t t e r , t he

Gr a m sc i de ba t e i s fa r f r om ove r .

Th i s s i tua t ion c a me a bo u t wh e n , a f t e r t he f al l o f f asc ism, Tog l i a t t i, wh o ha d

suc c e e de d Gr a m sc i a s t he he a d o f t he I t a l i a n C om m uni s t P a r ty , sy s t e ma t i c a l ly


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pr oc e e de d to e mb a lm Gr a msc i ' s t houg h t a s the m a in ide o log ic a l p i l la r o f t he

P a r ty ' s

de f c to

soc ia l - de moc r a t i c po l i c i e s a nd the o r e t i c a l o r i e n ta t ion . B u t

s inc e in the imm e d ia t e pos t -W or ld W a r I I pe r iod o f f ic i a l c om m unis t i de o logy

wa s unde r S ta l in ' s unc on te s t e d c on t r o l a nd a ll o f M a r x is t t he o r y was p r e se n -

t e d a s a n un in t e r r up te d de ve lopm e n t o f a s ingle the o r e t i c a l t r e nd f r om

Ma r x to the p r e se n t , t h i s m e a n t t ha t , i n o r de r t o f i t i n to the o f f i ci a l P a r ty

c h r on o log y . Gr a msc i ha d to be subsum e d as a f o l lowe r o f Le n in - a Le n in

t a i lo r e d a c c o r d ing to the S ta lin is t mo de l a nd , pu r i f ie d o f m os t o f h i s

r e vo lu t iona r y f e a tu r e s , r e duc e d to the l e ve l o f a ha r mle s s soc i a l - de moc r a t .

Th i s i n t e g r a t ion o f Le n in ' s , Gr a msc i ' s a nd S ta l in ' s t hough t s wa s ne c e s s i t a t e d

by the pa r t i c u l a r h i s to r ic a l s i t ua t ion o f pos t - fa sc is t I t a ly . Ac c o r d ing to

Le n t in i , t he t a sk wa s to r e c onc i l e t he r i c h Gr a msc ia n the o r e t i c a l he r i ta ge ,

a nd wha t i s r e l e va n t a nd p l a us ib l e i n h i s po l i t i c a l o r i e n ta t ion , w i th the ve r y

d i f f er e n t r e a l it y o f t h e i n t e rn a t i o n a l c o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t . T h i s w as

pa r t i c u l a r ly t r ue in 1945 , wh e n

Er c o l i ( Tog l i a t t i' s p se ud ony m ) c ou ld no t p r e se n t h ims e l f t o h i s c omr a de s

a s the a u th o r o f a po l i c y la c k ing r oo t s i n t he t r a d i t i on o f t he I ta l ia n

C o m m u n i s t P a r t y , n o r c o u l d h e a p p r o a c h o t h e r f o r ce s , w h o s e a ll ia n ce h e

sough t , a s t he pu r e a nd s imp le e xe c u to r o f t he ne w pha se o f S ov ie t po l i c y .

I n G r a msc i 's t e a c h ings he r e a d i ly sough t t he su ppo r t o f a s tr onge r

a u t ho r i ty f o r h is po l i c ie s - a n a u tho r i ty r oo te d in I t a li a n po li t ic s a nd

cul tu re , in the h is tor y o f the pa r ty , and in an t i - fa sc is t s truggle , a2

No twi th s t a nd ing in it i al a nd r a the r unsuc c e ss fu l opp os i t i on f r om C r oc e a n

in t e ll e c tua ls w ho sa w G r a msc i a s one o f t he i r own , 13 the in s t r um e n ta l i z a t ion

o f Gr a m sc i a s t he I t a l i a n i z e r o f wh a t i n t he pos t - wa r pe r iod wa s ge ne r al

S ov ie t po l i c y tu r ne d ou t t o be r e l a tive ly ea sy : a s e l e c tive r e a d ing o f h is w or ks ,

the hyp os ta t i z a t ion o f some o f h i s h i s to r i c al ly c on t inge n t po l i ci e s t o t he l eve l

o f t he pa r ty ' s ba s ic p r og r a m , a nd a p r ud e n t s i le nc e c onc e r n ing Gr a msc i ' s

growing op pos i t ion to S ta l in is t po l ic ie s 14 readi ly gen era ted a p o l i t ica l ly

m a r ke ta b le Gr a msc i . Thus , Tog l i a t t i be c a m e the ma in a r c h i t e c t o f t he m y th

o f G r a msc i as a b r i ll i an t t he o r e t i c a l f oo tno te to Le n in - a Le n in wh ic h , a s

a l r e a dy ind ic a t e d , wa s a n oppor tun i s t i c S t a l in i s t r e c ons t r uc t ion ma nuf a c tu r e d

in Russ ia t o provide i t s de - fac to to ta l i ta r ia n and soc ia l -dem ocra t ic po l ic ie s

wi th a l e g it ima t ing a n te c e d e n t .

W hat i s amaz ing i s tha t the I ta l ian ex t ra -pa r l iam enta ry Le f t has genera lly

a c c e p t e d t h e p a r t y ' s d u b i o u s a p p r o p r i a t io n o f G r a m s c i an d , t h e r e f o r e , h as

c on s t a n t ly a t t a c ke d h im a s a non - Le n in i s t , non - M a r x i st a nd ge ne r a l ly a

soc ia l -de m oc r a t .I s Ac c o r d ing to Me rli, one o f t he l e a d ing e x t r a - pa r l ia m e n ta r y

Lef t i s t an t i -Gramsc ians , 16 Gram sc i ends up for fe i t ing the ve ry idea o f a


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4 9 0

r e v o l u t i o n a r y b r e a k i n f a vo r o f a r e v o l u t i o n i n t w o s ta g es , o r a

r e v o l u t i o n w i t h o u t a r e v o l u t i o n , b y p o si n g t h e w a r o f p o s i t i o n as t h e

f i rs t sta ge o f a s t r a t e gy a ll e ge d ly le a d ing to t he e ve n tua l w a r o f m a nou vr e ,

wh ic h , un f o r tuna t e ly , ne ve r c ome s . C onse que n t ly , t he pa r ty ' s e vo lu t ion i s t i c

a pp r oa c h whe r e by powe r i s t o be ga ine d g r a dua l ly a nd th r ough e l e c to r a l

me a ns is s e e n a s a d i r e c t c on t inua t io n o f Gr a msc i' s r e vo lu t ion w i tho u t a

r e vo lu t ion wh ic h i s r e j e c t e d a s soc i a l- de moc r a t i c t h r ou gh a nd th r oug h . As ide

f r o m a b s t r a c tl y c o n d e m n i n g G r a m s c i f o r p o s i ng th e on y viable a l te rna t ive in

a ve r y l imi t e d soc io - h i s to r i c al c on te x t , t h is c r i t i que f r om the Le f t unc r i ti c -

a l ly a ssumes as i t s theo re t ica l m easure a Lenin is t m od e l which , even in i t s

una d u l t e r a t e d o r ig ina l ve r s ion , no t on ly wa s im m e nse ly i n f e rio r t o Gr a msc i ' s

bu t , a s we shall i nd i c a te l a te r , on c lo se r e xa m ina t ion tu r ne d ou t t o be a me r e

e x t e n s io n o f p r e d o m i n a n t b o u r g e o i s i d e o lo g y .

Th i s i de o log ic a l c ome dy o f e r r o r s su r r ound ing Gr a msc i - in t e r p r e t a t i ons i s

f u r the r ob f u sc a t e d b y the T r o t sk y i s t s ' own pos i ti ve e va lua t ion a nd a pp r op r ia -

t ion o f G ramsc i . 17 W hat mak es th is appea r abno rm al is tha t , a t f i rs t s igh t , one

w ould pred ic t tha t , g iven the i r c lose pol i t ica l a f fin i t ie s and th e i r equa l ly t r ag ic

f a t e w i th in t he o f f i c i a l c ommuni s t move me n t , I t a l i a n T r o t sky i s t s wou ld s ide

wi th Bordiga aga ins t Gramsc i s ince , a s Pe r l in i r igh t ly put i t , '*Bordiga saw

c e r t a in e s se n t i a l t h ings be f o r e T r o t sky a nd wa s mor e c ohe r e n t t ha n the

la t te r in drawing th e due co nsequ ences . '18 Bu t Bord iga ' s pe rcep t ive rese r -

v a t io n s h a d b e e n v e r y e a r ly b r a n d e d a s s e c t a r i a n a n d e x t r e m i s t b y

T r o t s k y h i m s e l f a t a t i m e w h e n h e s ti ll h a r b o r e d h o p e s o f g ain in g h e g e m o n y

wi th in the Russ ian pa r ty and w as ope nly aga inst Bord igan- type fac -

t i ona l i sm in t he na me o f a f i c t i t i ous pa r ty un i ty . C onse que n t ly , I t a l i a n

Tr o t sky i s t s ha ve t a ke n g r e a t pa in s t o s e pa r a t e Gr a msc i f r om Tog l i a t t i ,

s t a r t i ng f r om a n ope n d i sa g r e e me n t be twe e n the two be f o r e Gr a msc i ' s

a r r e s t i n 1926 c onc e r n ing S ta li n s adm in i s tr a t ive ha nd l ing o f T r o t sk y and the

Le f t oppo s i t i on . 19 W i thou t ve n tu r ing he r e i n to t he pa r t i c u l a r me r i t s o f t h i s

a n t i -S t a l in i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i on o f Gr a m sc i , 2~ f o r t he p r e se n t pu r pose i t ne e d on ly

be poin ted out tha t I ta l ian Tro tskyis t s have rendered an inva luable se rv ice

in he lp ing t o c la r i fy a whole ser ie s o f c ruc ia l h i s tor ica l po in ts . Y e t , on the

who le , t he i r a c c o un t r e ma ins unc onv inc ing in l igh t o f Gr a msc i ' s c om mi t -

m e n t t o t h e p a r t y .

G ive n the b r e a d th a nd va r i e ty o f in t e r p r e t a t i on s o f Gr amsc i , i t be c ome s

ne c e s sa r y to i nve st igat e wha t c o ns t i t u t e s a Ma r x i st r e a pp r op r i a t i on o f th i s

the o r e t i c a l he r i ta ge , a nd how to c o nc r e t e ly a rt i c u l a te i t w i th in a ne w

c on te x t w h ic h ha s r e n de r e d i t l a rge ly obso le t e . Th i s i s a p r ob le m wh ic h , no t

a c c ide n ta l ly , ha d a l r e a dy t a xe d to t he l imi t t he t he o r e t i c a l ar sena l no t on ly o f

Gr a m sc i bu t o f a l l h i s c o n te m po r a r y H e ge li a n Ma r x is ts w i th r e spe c t to M a rx ,


7/28

491

Le n in a nd th e S e c ond I n t e r na t iona l . As a l r e a dy ind ic a te d , t he h i s to r y o f t he

p r oc e s s whe r e b y the we a l th o f Gr a msc i 's soc ia l t hou gh t wa s r e duc e d to on ly a

f e w o f i ts mino r mo m e n t s i s a lmos t i de n t i c a l t o t he f a t e o f M a r x 's wor ks i n

the l a t e 19 th c e n tu r y . W ha t f a c i l i t a t e d the se i n s t r ume n ta l i z a t ions a nd f a l -

s i fi c a tions wa s tha t b o t h t h inke r s f o l lowe d r ough ly the s a me pa t t e r n o f

in t e l l e c tua l de ve lop m e n t f r om in i ti a ll y e xp l i c i t i de al is t pe r spe c t ive s t o spe c i fi c

a nd h i s to r i c a l ly - de t e rmina t e pos i t i ons . S inc e the o r ig ina l f r a me w or k wa s

ne ve r a l t oge the r a ba ndone d bu t on ly i nc r e a s ing ly r e l e ga t e d to a n inv i s ib l e

ba c kgr o und , wh a t c a me d ow n a s t he i r he r i ta ge we r e p r e c ise ly t hose spe c i f ic

a nd h i s to r i c a l ly - de t e r mina t e pos i t i ons r e nde r e d obso le t e by h i s to r ic a l

de ve lopme n t s , t he mse lve s pa r t l y p r e c ip i t a t e d by the a t t e mp t t o r e a l i z e t he

po l i t ic a l imp l i c a t ions o f t he se pos i t i ons . Th i s is w hy the r e duc t ion o f M a r x 's

thou gh t t o i ts ba re e c on om ic c om pon e n t s r e su l t e d in a sy s t e ma t i c impove r i sh -

m e n t o f M a r x is m w i t h in t h e S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d l e d e v e n L e n i n to d ig

out Hegels

L o g i c

i n o r de r t o m a ke se nse ou t o f

C a p i t a l

t h r ou gh the r e in t e g ra -

t i on o f i ts f a de d ph i lo soph ic a l ba c kg r ound . 21

U nf o r tu na t e ly , t h i s s to r y ha s no h a pp y e nd ing , f o r i t is no t t he c a se t ha t onc e

the f o r go t t e n the o r e t i c a l f ra m e w or k is r e in t e g r a t e d w i th i t s s e ve r ed m om e n t s ,

a ll is we l l and th eo ry an d prac t ice l ive hap pi ly the rea f te r . His tory takes i ts

to l l . As Ko rsch put i t , a l l a t tem pts t o r e -estab l i sh the M arxis t do c t r ine as a

who le i n i t s o r ig ina l f unc t ion a s a t he o r y o f t he wo r k ing c l as s ' soc ia l

r e vo lu t ion a r e r e a c t ion a r y u top ia s . ''22 P e nd ing the dub ious a c h ie ve m e n t o f

the He ge l i a n Abso lu t e , a l l t he o r e t i c a l c ons t r uc t ions mus t be r e l e ga t e d to

one s ide dne ss a nd c a n on ly r e c e ive the i r va l ida t ion a s h i s to r i c a l ly g r ounde d

m e d i a t io n s n o t e x t r a p o l ab l e b e y o n d t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e y a re

c rea ted . 23 Fu r th e rm ore , w i th in th is log ic , a l l

t h e o r e t i c a l

c l a ims to a bso lu t e

know le dge no t on ly t u r n ou t t o be e p i s t e molog ic a l f r a uds bu t , a s C a s to r ia d is

ha s po in t e d o u t i n t e r ms o f 20 th c e n tu r y r e a li ti e s , t he y p r ov ide the ide o l -

og ica l ju s t i f i c a t ion f o r bu r e a u c r a t i c dom ina t ion . 24 Th i s i s w hy the m or e

ph i lo soph ic a l m om e n t s o f M a r x 's wo r k be c o m e the m os t s alvagea ble he r i ta ge :

w h e r e a s t h e e c o n o m i c s o f

C a p i t a l

a n d o f

T h e o r i e s o f S u r p l u s V a l u e

r e m a i n

i n e x t r i ca b l y b o u n d t o t h e c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t c o n d i t io n s o f 1 9 t h c e n t u r y

c a p i ta l ism a nd , a s suc h , c on f r on t u s a s t he o r e t i c a l e l a bo r a t ions o f a r e a l i t y

long-s ince pas t , the

M a n u s c r i p t s

a n d t h e

Gr u n c l r i s s e

a nd the no t s t r i c t l y

e c o n o m i c p a r ts o f C a p i t a l s t i l l p r ov ide u s w i th a ph i lo sophy wh ic h ,

c onc r e t e ly h i s to r i c i z e d , c a n he lp u s me a n ing f u l ly de a l w i th ou r p r e se n t .

Marxism surv ives a s f a i th prec ise ly because , a s Adorno put i t , i t was not ( and

we shou ld a d d : i t c ou ld n o t ha ve be e n ) r e a l iz e d . 2s

The f a t e o f Gr a msc i 's t hou gh t is ve r y simi la r . As w i th M a r x, the e a r ly wor ks

a r e ope n ly He ge li a n ( C r oc e a n ) - a f e a tu r e t ha t , a l t houg h subse q ue n t ly


8/28

4 9 2

d e - e m p h a s i z ed i n w h a t h e w r o t e a s a p a r t y o f fi c ia l f r o m t h e f o r m a t i o n o f th e

I t a li a n Co m m uni s t P a r t y t o h i s a r r e s t in 1926 , r e a ppe a r s f u l l- b l ow n i n t he

Prison Notebooks ~6

A l s o, a s in M a r x , w h a t ha s be e n e m ba l m e d a s o f f i c ia l

G r a m s c i a n t hou gh t c ons i st s o f ge ne r a ll y i de o log i c a l f a ls i fi c a ti ons a nd

hyp os t a t i z e d h i s t o r i c a l ly - de t e r m i na t e n o t i ons l e a s t l i ke l y t o s u r vi ve t he c o r -

r o s ive e f f e c t s o f c ha ng i ng c ond i t i ons . T h i s c ons t r uc t i on o f t he o f f i c i a l

G r a m s c i w a s c ar r ie d ou t , a s a l r e a dy m e n t i one d , by T o g l i a tt i i n a s e ri es o f

e x t r e m e l y i n f lu e n t ia l e s s ay s w r i tt e n m o s t l y f r o m t h e e n d o f W o r ld W a r I I t o

1964 s ho r t l y be f o r e h i s de a t h . 27 I t i s u s e f u l t o c l o s el y e xa m i ne T og l i a t t i' s

c l a i m no t i n o r d e r t o p r ov i de a m e r e l y s c ho l a st i c r e f u t a t i on , bu t a s a gu ide t o

s o m e o f G r a m s c i ' s k e y n o t i o n s , w h e r e d i st a nc e f r o m b o t h L e n i n a n d t h e

var ious Marx i s t -Lenin i s t fo rmula t ions wi l l i nd ica te the i r re l evance for a

r a d i c al s oc i a l t he o r y o f l a t e c a p i t a li s m , a t he o r y i r r e duc i b l e t o t he n e o -

G r a m s c i s m und e r s t o od i n P e rl in i 's se ns e o f a n i n s id i ous i de o l ogy o f t he

a dve r s a r y c a m o uf l a ge d a s r e vo l u t i ona r y t he o r y . ' '2 s

arxist ethodology

T o t he e x t e n t t h a t w i t h i n a ny t h e o r y ba s i c no t i on s r e c e ive t he i r m e a n i ngs i n

r e l a t ion t o bo t h t he l og ic a l s tr uc t u r e a s w e l l a s t he i r i n te r na l r e l a ti ons w i t h

o t h e r n o t i o n s o f t h e t h e o r y i n q u e s t io n , i t m a y v e r y w e l l b e t h a t s i m i la r

c l a i m s m a y ha ve s ubs t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f unc t i ons a nd m e a n i ngs w i t h i n d i f -

f e r e n t t he o r i e s. S i nce T o g l i a tt i , L e n i n a nd G r a m s c i ha ve t h r e e d i f f e r e n t

t he o r i e s o f M a r x i s m , i t f o l l ow s t ha t a l t ho ugh a ll t h r e e m a y be u s i ng s im i l a r

p h r a s e s , t h e y m a y n o t m e a n t h e s a m e t h i n g . T h u s , a l t h o u g h T o g l i a t t i i s

c o r r e c t i n c l a im i ng t ha t , f o r G r a m s c i , t o do po l i ti c s m e a ns t o a c t in s uc h a

w a y a s t o t r a ns f o r m t he w or l d . H e nc e po l i t i c s c on t a i n s e ve r yo ne ' s r e a l

p h i l o s o p h y a l o ng w i t h t h e s u b s t a n c e o f h i s to r y . . . . ,,2 9 i t d o e s n o t f o l lo w t h a t

f o r G r a m s c i t h e t r u t h o f h is p o li ti c al t h o u g h t is r e d u ci b le t o t h e m e t h o d

w h i c h i s M a r x i st a nd L e n i n i st ' a ~ a s bo t h T og l i a t t i a nd M a r x i s t -L e n i n i s ts

u n d e r s t a n d it . A l t h o u g h T o g l i a tt i d i d n o t b o t h e r t o d o c u m e n t t h e s e c la im s , i t

is no t d i f f ic u l t t o p r ov i de a n a r m y o f quo t e s t o s u ppo r t t he m . 31 T og l i a t i a nd

G r a m s c i, h o w e v e r , d o n o t m e a n t h e sa m e t h in g b y m e t h o d .

T h e q u e s t io n o f M a r x is t m e t h o d o l o g y , i n fa c t , i s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n f u s e d

w i t h i n t he p r e s e n t s t a t e o f t he o r e t i c a l d i sc us si on . W he r e a s T og l i a t ti a nd t he

o f f i c i a l c o m m u n i s t v e r s i o n c o d i f y t h e m e t h o d o l o g y w i t h i n a formal d o m a i n

a c c e ss i b le on l y t o t he l e a de r s o f t he w or k i ng c l a s s a nd a pp l i c a b l e t o t he

pol i t i ca l s t ruggle l ead ing to the ov er th row of preva i l ing cap i t a l i s t r e l a t ions , 32

f o r G r a m s c i s u c h a n o b j e c ti f ic a t io n o f m e t h o d l e a ds M a r x i s m t o b e c o m e a n

i de o l ogy i n t he w o r s t s e ns e o f t he w or d , t ha t is t o s a y , a dog m a t i c s y s t e m o f

e t e r na l a nd a bs o l u t e t r u t h s . '' 33 A l t hough w i t h i n M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m t he


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4 9 3

s pe c i fi c c on t e n t o f t he o r y i s c ons i de r e d va r i a b l e as a func t i on o f cha ng i ng

h i s t o r ic a l c i r c um s t a nc e s , t he m e t h od w he r e by t h i s va r i a b le c on t e n t i s p r ope r -

l y de a l t w i t h i s t he r e by r e i f ie d p r e c i s e l y to t he m e t a ph ys i c a l le ve l o f

a bs o l u t e t r u t h s . T ha t t h i s m e t hod s ubs e que n t l y be c om e s t he s o l e pos s e s s i on

o f t he r e vo l u t i ona r y t e c hn i c ia ns o f t he P a r t y 34 a nd t hus c ons i de r a b l y c on -

t r i b u t e s t o w i d e n i n g t h e s o c i a l g a p b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o k n o w a n d t h o s e w h o

d o n o t k n o w - p r e c is e ly w h a t , a m o n g o t h e r t h in g s , t h e r e v o l u t io n i s m e a n t t o

b r i dge - m a ke s i t i n t o t he opp os i t e o f w h a t G r a m s c i s ough t .

F o r G r a m s c i t he M a r x i a n m e t h od is f un da m e n t a l l y i n f o r m a l ( i. e. , i r re duc i b l e

t o a s er ie s o f st e p s o r p r oc e d u r e s ) a nd s ub j e c ti ve . T o t he e x t e n t t ha t he se e s

M a r x i s m a s t he m os t r e c e n t s yn t he s i s o f t he W e s t er n t r a d i t ion , p r e s uppo s i ng

t h e R e n a i s s a n c e a n d t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , G e r m a n i d ea l is m a nd t h e F r e n c h

Re volu t ion , Ca lv in i sm and Engl i sh c l as s ica l eco nom ics , s ecu la r l i be ra l i sm and

t h is h i s to r i c is m w h i c h is a t t h e r o o t o f t h e w h o l e m o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n o f

l if e , ' 3s t he goa l is non e o t he r t ha n t he r e a l iz a t i on o f w ha t t h i s t r a d i t i on ha s

be e n a i m i ng f o r : t ha t f r e e s oc i a l i nd i v i dua l de s c r i be d by M a r x i n t he

Grund-

risse 36 a nd p r e f i gu r e d e ve n e a rl ie r in t he c i t iz e n o f t he G r e e k polis or in the

Chr i s t i an soul. O n l y w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f c o m m u n i s m , h o w e v e r , i s i t p o s si b le t o

f ina l ly rea l i ze th i s goa l by abo l i sh ing the l a s t expres s ion o f cl a ss d iv i s ions

w h i c h h a v e h i t h e r t o p r e v e n te d t h e m a j o r i ty o f m a n k i n d f r o m b e c o m i n g

hu m a n be i ngs i n t he f u l l e s t se ns e, t hus n o t on l y r e duc i ng the f r e e do m o f t he

f e w t o a n a bs t r a c t f r e e do m , bu t a l so de g r a d ing t he va r ious e xp r e s si ons o f t h is

W e s te r n tr a d i t io n t o m a n i f e s t a t io n s o f t h e i n t im a t e c o n t r a d i c ti o n s b y w h i c h

s oc i e t y is l a c e r a t e d . ' '37 T hus , G r a m s c i s a w M a r x i s m a s a bs o l u t e h i s-

t o r i c i s m '3 s i n s o f a r a s i ts s yn t he s i z e s t he t r a d i t i on a nd c onc r e t e l y w or ks o u t

t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n o f m a n k i n d is c a r ri e d o u t b y d e s t ro y i n g

t he l a s t a nd m os t a dva nc e d f o r m s o f i n t e r na l s oc i a l d i v i s i ons . S i nc e bo t h t he

h i s t o r i c a l c on t e n t a s w e l l as t he t r a d i t i on t o be f u lf i ll e d a r e c on s t a n t l y unde r

d e v e l o p m e n t , n o

f o r m a l

m e t h o d t o m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h e t w o c a n b e g iv e n

onc e a nd f o r a l l : w h i c h e xp l a i n s w hy prams i s t he cen t ra l Marx i s t ca t egory . I t

i s t ha t c r e a t i ve a c t i v i t y w h i c h r e c ons t i t u t e s t he pa s t i n o r de r t o f o r ge t he

po l i t i c a l t oo l s i n t he p r e s e n t , t o b r i ng a bou t a qua l i t a t i ve l y d i f f e r e n t f u t u r e .

T h i s is w hy G r a m s c i ha i l ed t he Bo l s he v ik r e vo l u t i on a s T h e Re vo l u t i on

agains t Capital. T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t Capital i n R u s s i a . . . w a s t h e c r it ic a l

d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e f a ta l n e c e s si ty w h e r e b y a b o u rg e o is i e h a d t o c o m e i n t o

be ing , a cap i t a l i s t e ra had to beg in a long wi th a c iv i li za t ion of the Wes te rn

type , be fore the pro le t a r i a t could even cons ide r i t s c l a s s v ind ica t ions , i t s

revolu t ion , ' 39 i t ha d to be pu t a s ide . In the of f i c i a l soc ia l -de m ocra t i c in t e r -

p r e t a t i on , Capital ha d be e n s e e n as a b l ue p r i n t f o r t he n e c e s s a r y st a ges o f

h i s t o ri c a l de ve l op m e n t . T h i s ob j e c t iv i s t ic i n t e r p r e t a t i on w a s po l i t ic a l l y de -


10/28

4 9 4

a c t iva t i ng : e ve n t s ha ve e xp l ode d t h e c r it ic a l s c he m e s w i t h i n w h i c h t he

h i s t o r y o f R u s si a w o u l d h a v e h a d t o d e v e l o p a c c o rd i n g t o t h e c a n o n s o f

h i s t o r ic a l m a t e r i a l i s m . T h e Bo l she v i k s a r e no t ' M a r x i s t s , ' G r a m s c i c on -

t in u e s , b u t t h e y liv e t h e M a r x i s t t h o u g h t t h a t n ev e r d i e s . . , w h i c h a lw a y s

pos i t s m a n , a nd n o t b r u t e e c on om i c f a c ts , as the s up r e m e f a c t o r i n h i s t o r y .

T hus , a l r e a dy i n 1918 G r a m s c i ha d s e e n t he obs o l e s c e nc e o f t he h i s t o r ic a l l y

spec i f i c fea tures of c la ss ical M arx i sm ( a t leas t , as s een by the Se con d In te r -

na t i ona l ) a nd w h a t r e nde r e d i t s ti ll v a l id : t he p r i m a c y o f hu m a n a c t i v i t y ove r

a nd a bove i t s t he o r e t i c a l ob j e c t i f i c a ti ons , a l ong w i t h t he a b i l i ty o f M a r x i s t

t h o u g h t t o c o n c r e t e ly e l a b o r a te t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a d it i o n w i t h o u t

be c om i ng i ne x t r i c a b l y e n t r a ppe d i n a ny o f i t s h i s t o r i c a l l y s pe c i f i c m om e n t s .

T h i s is w h y h i s M a r x i a n m e t ho d bo i l s dow n t o s oc i o - h is t o r ic a l ly g r oun de d

po l i t ic a l a c t i v i t y f a i t h f u l t o a n e m a nc i pa t o r y t e l e o l ogy bu t i r r e duc li b le t o a ny

p r e c on s t i t u t e d s e t o f p r oc e du r e s . A s S a l va do r i pu t i t, t h e a c t i ve l y o r ga n i z ing

e l e m e n t w i t h i n G r a m s c i ' s w or k w a s no t t he s c i e n t i fi c a nd ph i l o log i c a l r e c on -

s t r uc t i on o f M a r x a nd E nge l s ' tho ug h t ( a s in t he c a s e, w e c ou l d a dd , o f

L ukf ic s ), b u t r a t he r , t he c onc r e t e r e qu i r e m e n t s o f po l i ti c a l p r a x is , ' 4~ In

T og l i a t t i ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i on , how e ve r , G r a m s c i ' s o r i g i na l i t y i s r e duc e d t o h i s

m e r e a dhe r e nc e t o P a r t y po l i ti c s a s i t is h i e r a r c h i c a ll y se t by t he ne e ds o f t he

w o r l d c o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t - s o m e t h i n g t o o r e m i n i sc e n t o f T o g l i a tt i 's o w n

po li t ic al role. 41

T h i s a l so e xp la i n s G r a m s c i ' s de s c r i p t i on o f h i s ow n v ie w s a s L e n i n i s t . T he

L e n i n t h a t G r a m s c i k n e w a n d a d m i r e d w a s q u i te d i f f e r e n t f r o m b o t h t h e

h i s t o ri c a l L e n i n a nd t he s a nc t i f ie d ve rs i on e m ba l m e d in Re d S qua r e . A s

he w rote in pr i son , h is Len in is to M arx as S t . Pau l is to Chr i s t : t h ey

r e p r e s en t t w o p h a s e s: s c ie n ce a n d a c t io n w h i c h a r e h o m o g e n e o u s a n d

h e t e r o g e n e o u s a t th e s a m e t i m e , y e t b o t h a r e n e c e s s a r y t o t h e s a m e

d e gr ee . '4 2 T h e L e n i n w h o m G r a m s e i k n e w w a s t h e m a n o f a c ti o n w h o h a d

s uc c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d ou t a m a j o r r e vo l u t i on . I t ha s be e n e s t a b l i s he d f o r s om e

t i m e n o w t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t R u s si a, L e n i n a n d t h e B o l sh e v ik R e v o l u t i o n

a r oun d t he 1920s w a s ve r y i na de qu a t e 43 a nd by 1968 e ve n l e ad i ng pa r t y

i n t e ll e c t ua ls s uc h a s Ra g i on i e r i ha d t o c onc l ude t ha t G r a m s c i w a s a t le a s t a

v e r y d i f fe r e n t k i n d o f L e n i n i s t r o u n d 1 9 2 0 . 44 F u r t h e r m o r e , a r ig o r o u s

e xa m i na t i on o f t he i r r e s pe c t i ve ou t l ooks r e ve a l s qua l i t a t i ve l y d i f f e r e n t

t he o r e t i c ia ns . T h us , f o r i n s ta nc e , G r a m s c i d i d no t k no w m os t o f L e n i n ' s

w o r k s b e f o r e 1 9 2 2 . W h a t h a s s in c e b e c o m e t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f M a r xi sm -

L e n i n is m w a s s i m p l y n o t a v ai la b le to h i m ( a n d L e n i n h i m s e l f h a d m a n a g e d t o

j un k m os t o f t he c r ude i de a s c on t a i ne d i n the s e w or k s ) . E ve n a f te r 1918 ,

w he n L e n i n ' s na m e e xp l ode d o n t he w o r l d s c e ne w i t h t he B o l s he v ik r e vo lu -

t i on , t he w o r ks w h i c h w e r e tr a ns l a t e d i n t o I t a l i a n ( a nd o t he r l a nguage s , f o r

t h a t m a t t e r ) f o r w i d e c i rc u l at io n , w e r e p r i m a r i ly t h o s e d e v o t e d t o t h e


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4 9 5

i m m e d i a t e s tr ugg le o f t hos e ye a r s , aga i n st soc i a l c ha uv i n i s m a nd c e n t r is m , f o r

t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a ti o n o f t h e c o m m u n i s t I n te r n a t io n a l . 4 s W i t h t h e

p o s si b le e x c e p t i o n o f th e p a m p h l e t s o n mperialism a n d S ta te and Revo lu t ion

w r i t t e n b e t w e e n t he t w o m a i n pha s e s o f t he Ru s s ia n Re vo l u t i on - a ll t he

w or ks i nvo l ve d a r e p r e c i s e l y t hos e w h i c h p r e s e n t L e n i n a s t he de d i c a t e d

pol i t i ca l l eader w ho, nev er los ing s igh t o f the f ina l goa l , is non e the les s ab le to

c on s t a n t l y r e o r i e n t s t r a t e g y a c c o r d i ng t o t he r e qu i r e m e n t s o f c ha ng ing s oc ia l

c ond i t i ons . A t a n y r a t e , i t is ge ne ra l ly a g r e e d t ha t w ha t pa s s e d f o r L e n i n i s m

i n t he e a r ly pos t - W or l d W a r I ye a r s w a s no t r e a l l y L e n i n i s m as T og l i a t ti a nd

M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m un de r s t a nd i t i n t he pos t - W or l d W a r I I pe r i od . 46

Given th i s s t a t e o f a f fa i r s , To gl i a t t i ' s c l a im con cern ing the Lenin i s t he r i t age to

w h i c h G r a m s c i a ll e ge d ly p r ov i de s a f oo t n o t e - e ve n i f a b r i ll i an t one -

app ears h igh ly suspe c t . Thu s , i t is i ns t ruc t ive to c lose ly exa m ine Tog l i a t t i ' s

fu l l evidence . Accord ing to Togl i a t t i ,

t he r e a r e in L e n i n a t l e a s t t h r e e m a i n c ha p t e r s w h i c h de t e r m i ne t he w ho l e

de ve l opm e n t o f h is a c t i on a nd t hou gh t : a doc t r i ne o f i m pe r i a l i sm a s t he

h i ghe s t pha s e o f c a p i t a l is m ; a doc t r i ne o f r e vo l u t i on a n d t he r e f o r e o f t he

S ta te , a nd a doc t r in e of the Pa r ty . 47

T he a c c e p t a nc e a nd d e ve l op m e n t o f t he s e c ha p t e r s is, f o r T og l i a t ti , t he

de c is ive f a c t o r i n G r a m s c i ' s w ho l e e vo l u t i on a s a t h i nke r a nd a s a po l i t ic a l

m a n o f a c t i o n . A c lo s er e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h es e th r e e c h a p t er s , h o w e v e r ,

r e ve a l s t ha t , f a r f r om c ons t i t u t i ng e qua l l y f unda m e n t a l p i l l a r s o f L e n i n ' s

t houg h t , t he y a r e t h r e e m a i n t e ne t s o f M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m , t he s t r uc t u r e o f

L e n i n ' s t h o u g h t i s m u c h m o r e a m b i g u o u s a n d c o m p l e x , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

be t w e e n L e n i n a n d G r a m s c i is r a d i c a ll y d i f f e r e n t .

T h e T h e o r y o f I m p e r ia l is m

A l m os t s i x t y y e a r s a f t e r it w a s o r i g ina l ly d e ve l ope d , L e n i n ' s t he o r y o f

i m p e r a l is m a p p e a r s t o d a y t o b e d e c i d e d ly o b s o l e te . I t p r o j e c t e d t h a t T h e

e xp o r t o f c a p i t a l i n f lue nc e s , g r e a t l y a c c e l e r a te s t he de ve l op m e n t o f c a p it a l is m

i n thos e c oun t r i e s ill w h i c h i t is e xp o r t e d , w h i l e i t m a y t e nd t o a r r e s t

de ve l opm e n t i n t he c a p i t a l - e xpo r t i ng c ou n t r i e s . '' 48 T hus , i m pe r i a l i sm w a s

t o h e l p t h e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d - a n o t i o n t h a t c o n t ra d i c t s

a ll o f t he h i s t o r ic a l e ve n t s o f t he 20 t h c e n t u r y . A s E m m a n ue l ha s po i n t e d

o u t , t h e r e d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n a n y s ig n i fi ca n t e x p o r t o f c a p it a l f r o m

Br i ta i n be t w e e n 1870 a nd 1914 - t he pe r i od t ha t L e n i n s t ud i e d - a nd he

q u o t e s K e y n e s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t th e r e h a d n o t b e e n a n y n e t e x p o r t o f

c a p i ta l s i n c e . . . 1 5 8 0 , w h e n Q u e e n E l i za b e t h i n v e st e d D r a k e ' s t re a s u re i n th e


12/28

4 9 6

L e v a n t C o m p a n y a n d l a te r u s e d th e p r o f i ts t o f o u n d t h e W e s t I n d i a C o m -

pa n y '49 F u r t he r m or e , a s Ca rl o has s how n , t he w ho l e t h e o r y w a s s e lf -

c o n t r a d i c t o r y f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n in g s in c e, i n a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s a m e

pa m pl ' de t L e n i n

e m p h a s i z e s t h e g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f f o r ei g n p r o d u c e d i n c o m e f o r m e t r o -

po l i t a n c a p i t a l is m : t hus , f r o m 1865 t o 1898 s uc h i nc om e g r ow s n i ne f o l d ,

w h i l e E ng l is h w e a l t h o n t he w ho l e on l y doub l e s , a nd s e rve s t o m a i n t a i n

t he unp r odu c t i ve c on s um pt i on o f a s i gn if i ca n t m a s s o f re n t i e rs ( a r ound a

m i l l i on ) , o r t o c o r r u p t l a b o r a r i s toc r a c i e s o r, f ina l ly , t o f i na nc e e x t r a va g a n t

horse- races , so

O ne c ou l d go on . T he po i n t , how e ve r , i s t ha t mperialism w a s f r o m t h e v e r y

b e g i n n in g " a m a r g in a l w o r k w h i c h n e v e r h a d a n y s c i en t if ic p r e t e n s i o n s . . .

a nd f a r f r om be i ng a ge ne ra l t he o r y o f i m pe r i a l is m , i t w a s on l y a n e m p i r i c a l

a na l y si s c ond i t i one d by a pa r t i c u l a r h i s t o r ic a l s i tua t i on . ' ' s l P u r e l y in t e r m s o f

L e n i n ' s i n t e l l e c t ua l b i og r a phy , mperialism m u s t b e r e g a rd e d - c o n t r a r y to

To gl i a t t i ' s c l a ims - p r im ar i ly a s a political t r a c t r a t he r t ha n a s c i e n t i f i c

t r e a t i s e . T he s uc c e s s t ha t i t h a s ha d i s due , a s Ba s s o ha s pu t i t , m or e " t o t he

pe r s ona l i t y o f t he a u t ho r a nd t o t he p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s ob t a i ne d by h i s po l i t i c a l

a c ti o n t h a n t o t h e b o o k ' s a c t u a l c o n t e n t . ' 's 2 I n t h e c o n t e x t w i th i n w h i c h i t

w a s w r i t t e n , i t w a s a po l e m i c a ga i n s t s oc i a l - de m oc r a t i c t he o r i e s w h i c h

p r o j e c t e d t h e e t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f c a p i ta l is m o r w h ic h , a s w i t h L u x e m b u r g

bu t s t il l on a s imi la r ly mec han i s t i c and e con om is t i c ve in , s aw soc ia l i sm as the

inevi t ab le re su l t o f the even tua l co l l apse of cap i t a l i sm because o f i ts i rre -

s o l va b l e i n t e r na l c on t r a d i c t i ons . I n e i t he r c a s e , w ha t w a s no t t a ke n i n t o

a c c o un t w a s p r e c i s e l y w h a t S a m i r A m i n , a nd L uk~ ic s be f o r e h i m , s3 s ee as the

l a st in g c o n t r i b u t i o n o f L e n i n 's p a m p h l e t : " t h e o b j e ct iv e t ie s b e t w e e n t h e

m o n o p o l i e s a n d r e v is i o n is m " i n a w o r l d c o n t e x t t y p i f i e d b y n e w c o n t ra -

d ic t ions a s we l l a s by a new ty pe of wo rk ing c l as s, s4 Thu s , the p o l i t i ca l th rus t

o f

mperialism

cons i s t s in iden t i fy ing the s t ruggle aga ins t rev i s ion i sm in the

a dva nc e d c a p i t a li s t c oun t r i e s a s the p r i m a r y t a s k i n a ne w e c on om i c w o r l d

o r d e r w h e r e t h e h e a v ie s t b u r d e n o f e x p l o i t a t i o n h a d a l re a d y b e e n s h i f te d t o

t he T h i r d W or l d ( t hus ge ne r a t i ng ne w r e vo l u t i ona r y pos s i b i l i t i e s t he r e ) .

P r e ci se ly t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t w h a t s e p a r a t e d L e n i n f r o m t h e r e st o f t h e

s oc i a l - de m oc r a t s - a nd e ve n Ros a L ux e m bu r g - w a s h i s

vOluntarism

and h i s

c o n s t a n t e m p h a s i s o n B o l sh e v ik p a r t y o r g a n i z at io n , t h e p a m p h l e t

mperialism

m u s t b e s e en a s e s se n ti a ll y a n o t h e r p o w e r f u l b o m b a s t m e a n t t o d e m o l i s h a n y

f a t a li s ti c a c c o un t o f i m pe r i a li s m a nd t o r e i t e r a t e t he c e n t r a l i ty o f the

c ons c i ous s ub j e c t i ve m om e n t , i .e ., the p a r t y ( e ve n i f i t t e nde d t o t a ke on

f e t i s h i s t i c f o r m s ) . Bu t e ve n t h i s " po l i t i c a l " r e a d i ng o f mperialism d o e s n o t

b r i ng L e n i n m uc h c l o s er t o G r a m s c i , si nce L e n i n s ti ll p r e s e n t s w h a t is


13/28


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4 9 8

T h e T h e o r y o f R e v o l u t io n

T h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s be c om e s c l e a r t h r ough a n a na l y s i s o f t he i r r e s pe c t i ve

v i e w s o f , f o r e xa m pl e , s t a t e a nd r e vo l u t i on . A l t hough L e n i n d i d no t s u f -

f i ci e n tl y a n a ly z e t h e n o t i o n o f r e v o lu t i o n a n d r e m a i n e d c a u g h t w i t h i n t h e

p r e dom i na n t c onc e p t s o f s c i e nc e , t e c hno l ogy a nd o r ga n i z a t i on , t hus f o r e -

s ha dow i ng t he m e c ha n i c a l r e p r oduc t i on o f c a p i t a l i s t r e l a t i ons e ve n a f t e r t he

s uc c e s s f u l ove r t h r ow o f c a p i t a l i s m , a t l e a s t i n S ta t e and evo lu t i on h e

s t re s s e d t he qua l i ta t i ve d i s p l a c e m e n t o f s t a t e bu r e a uc r a t s b y ne w on e s -

a r m e d w o r ke r s - a nd t he e l i m i na t i on o f a ll p r iv i le ge s. O f f i c ia l c om m un i s t

i de o l ogy a f t e r t he 1930s r e i n s t a t e d t he p r i v il e ges a nd m e r e l y a l t e r e d t he

l e g i t im a t i ng r he t o r i c . Bo t h t he L e n i n i s t a nd t he o f f i c ia l c om m un i s t ve r s ions

a r e qua l i t a t ive l y d i f f e r e n t f r om w ha t G r a m s c i ha d i n m i n d : t he c om i ng i n t o

be i ng o f a ne w hu m a n i t y s e l f- c ons c ious o f i ts po t e n t i a l i t ie s a nd c ons e q ue n t l y

i m m u n e t o a n y n e w f o r m o f i n s tr u m e n t a l i z a ti o n . H e av o i d e d t h e tr a p s i n t o

w h i c h L e n i n r e a d i l y f e l l by a n un r e l e n t i ng c r i t i que o f pos i t i v i s m a nd i t s

va r ious gu ises . T here i s abs o lu te ly n o fe t i sh i sm of sc ience in Gra m sc i for

w h o m i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i t is n o t a t o m i c t h e o r y t h a t ex p l a in s h u m a n h i s to r y

bu t t he o t he r w a y a bou t : i n o t he r w or ds , t ha t a t om i c t he o r y a nd a l l s c i e n t i f i c

hyp o t he s e s a nd op i n i on a r e s upe r s t r uc t u r e s . ' 's T T hus , s oc i e t y a nd po l i t i c s c a n

n e v e r b e a d e q u a t e l y g r a s p e d b y a n

obfect ivis t ic

socia l sc ience:

T he s i tua t i ng o f t he p r o b l e m a s a s e a r c h f o r l aw s a nd f o r c ons t a n t , r e gu l ar

a nd un i f o r m l ine s i s c onne c t e d t o a ne e d , c onc e i ve d in a s om e w ha t pue r il e

a nd i nge n i ous w a y , t o r e s o lve i n pe r e m p t o r y f a sh i on the p r a c t i c a l p r ob l e m

o f the pred ic tab i l i ty of h i s tor i ca l event s , s8

I n f a c t , i n o r de r t o p r e ve n t t he oc c l u s ion o f t he a l l - im por t a n t c re a t ive

m om e n t i n the s c i e n t i fi c e n t e r p r is e , he a vo id s t a l k ing a bo u t M a r x i s m a s t he

s c ie nc e o f po l i ti c s bu t u s e s t he l es s s m oo t h ph r a s e t he a r t a nd s c ie nc e o f

po l i t i c s . The s t re s s th r ou gh ou t is on po l i ti c s a s an

act iv i ty

s o t ha t p r e d i c t i on ,

f a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x t r a p o l a t i o n f r o m t h e g iv e n o r a m e r e e x t e n s i o n o f p a s t

r e gu la r it ie s i n t o t he f u t u r e , i s p r i m a r i l y a n a c t o f c o m m i t m e n t : i n r e a l it y one

c a n ' f o r e s e e ' t o t he e x t e n t t ha t one a c t s , t o t he e x t e n t t ha t one a pp l i e s a

vo l un t a r y e f f o r t a nd t he r e f o r e c on t r i bu t e s c onc r e t e l y t o c r e a t i ng t he r e s u l t s

foreseen . ' s9 Bourgeo i s soc ia l sc iences presu pp ose prec i se ly w ha t is in the

p r oc e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l ly d i s a ppe ar i ng : t he p a s s i v i ty o f t he m a s s e s; s t a t i st i c a l

l a w s c a n be e m p l o ye d i n t he a r t a nd s c i enc e o f po l i ti c s on l y s o l ong as t he

g r e at m a s se s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n r e m a i n . . , e s se n t ia l ly p a ss iv e . ' 6 ~

N one o f t h i s c a n be f ound i n L e n i n , w i t h t he r e s u l t t ha t he hypos t a t i z e s

s c i e nc e a bove a nd be yond s oc i e t y , t hus a c c e p t i ng i t s a pp l i c a t i on ( t e c hno l ogy )


15/28

4 9 9

a s ne u t r a l . B u t , a s Ge or ge ha s shown , t o t he e x t e n t t ha t b o t h e a r ly 20 th

c e n tu r y s c i e nc e a nd t e c hno logy a r e p r ima r i ly soc i a l r e l a t i ons a nd , mor e ove r ,

bourgeois

soc ia l r e la t ions , r e vo lu t ion in Le n in tu r ns ou t t o be a m e r e sh i ft i n

ma n a ge m e n t . T he o r ga n iz a tiona l s tr uc tu r e i s r e t a ine d : t he P a r ty c ommissa r

r e p la c e s t he c a p i ta l is t bos s . Th r ou gh ou t t he r e vo lu t ion a r y p r oc e s s, t he

pro le ta r ia t r emains e ssent ia l ly unchanged:

F o r Le n in , i t i s a ma t t e r o f a c c e p t ing the p r o l e t a r i a t

as capitalism has

cons t i t u t ed i t

in ord e r to ca r ry o ut s l igh t ly d i f fe ren t tasks. I t has be en we l l

e duc a t e d a nd we l l a d ju s t e d . I n o the r wor ds , t he ba s i c pe r sona l i t y c r e a t e d

by c a p i ta l ism is t he one upon w h ic h soci al ism m us t r e s t. The c on s t r uc t ion

o f soc ia l ism p r e suppose s a l i e na t ion in it s mos t p r o f o un d se nse : submis s ion

to a u th o r i t y a nd r e p r e ss ion o f i nd iv idua l pos s ib i li ti e s o f ima g ina t ion ,

au to no m y, l ib e r ty , c rea t iv i ty , i. e ., o f o rg aniza t ion . 61

Tiff s i s s t r ik ingly ev ident in a com par iso n o f Lenin ' s and G ramsc i ' s ana lyses of

Ta y lo r i sm. F o r L e n in , it wa s

a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e r e f i n ed b r u t a l i t y o f b o u r g e o is e x p l o i t a ti o n a n d a

n u m b e r o f t h e g r e a te s t

sc ien t i f ic achievem ents in the f i e ld o f analyz ing

mechanical mot ions dur ing work

t he e l imina t ion o f supe r f luous a nd

a w k w a r d m o t i o n s , t h e e l a b o r a ti o n o f c o r r e c t m e t h o d s o f w o r k , th e in t r o -

d u c t i o n o f t h e b e s t s y s te m o f a c c o u n t in g a n d contro l et c. 62

Al l wo u ld b e we l l, a c c o r d ing to Le n in , onc e the T a y lo r sy s t e m we r e b r ou gh t

und e r soc ia li st m a na ge m e n t . H ow the b r u t a l i t y w ou ld be e l imina t e d r e ma ins a

m oo t p o in t a nd , s inc e e f f i c i e nc y a nd b r u t a l i t y a r e i ne x t r i c a b ly c onne c te d , i t

is unde r s t a nda b le w hy the R uss ia n r e vo lu t ion u l t ima te ly c a p i tu l a t e d by

r e in t r oduc ing n e w r e l at i ons o f dom ina t ion . As Kor sc h spe ll e d i t ou t

sho r t l y a f t e r wa r d ( 1922) , no p r o l e t a r i a n r e vo lu t ion i s pos s ib l e w i thou t t he

r e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d o f la b o r . 63 F a r

f r om be ing me r e S t a li n is t de v iat ions , t he ne w r e l a ti ons o f dom ina t ion w e r e t o

a n e x t e n t a l r e a dy r o o te d in L e n in ' s pa r t i al a nd c on f use d the o r e t i c a l v is ion .

Ho w doe s Gr a msc i de a l w i th Ta y lo r i sm? F i r s t o f al l, he doe s no t a pp r oa c h it

pu r e ly a s a te c hno log ic a l p r ob le m o f e f f ic i e nc y , bu t ( i n Am e r i c a n i sm a nd

F o r d i sm ) a s a soc ia l re l a t i on ine x t r i c a b ly c o nne c te d w i th e v e r yda y l if e ,

p r oh ib i t i on , s e xu a l i t y a nd c u l tu r e i n ge ne r a l. S e c on d ly , wh a t c onc e r ns

Gr a m sc i is no t p r ima r i ly p r oduc t ion , bu t w ha t ha ppe ns to t he sub je c t s wh o in

p r odu c ing c om m odi t i e s , p r od uc e the m se lve s a s we l l. F a r f r om f oc us ing on the

d i sc ip l ine d p r o l e t a r i a ns a s huma n r obo t s , wh ic h in Le n in a r e me c ha n ic a l ly

t r a nspose d in to t he P a r ty w he r e , owing to t he i r d i sc ipl ine a nd do c i l i ty , t ho


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can read i ly f i t i n to the Bol shev ik organ iza t ion , 64 Gram sc i st re sses the ch anges

t he h um a n s ub j e c t unde r goe s . W ha t he f i nds is t ha t t he p r oc e s s o f u t t e r

de g r a da t i on t o t he l eve l o f a m e r e m e c ha n i c a l func t i on , r a t he r t ha n

de s t r oy i ng t he p r oduc i ng s ub j e c t , p r ov i de s c ond i t i ons c onduc i ve t o t he ove r -

c om i ng o f a l ie na t i on . G r a m s c i ' s c r it ic s ne ve r t ir e o f po i n t i ng o u t t ha t i n

G r a m s c i no no t i on o f f a l se c ons c i ous nes s , a l i e na ti on o r r e i f i c a ti on i s t o be

fou nd , 6s and i t i s fu t i l e to s ea rch h i s wr i t ings for an ana lys is o f the ca l ibe r o f

L ukf i c s' Re i f i c a t i on a nd t he Cons c i ous ne s s o f t he P r o l e t a r i a t i n His tory and

Class Consciousness But t h i s doe s no t m e a n t ha t G r a m s c i d i d no t s ee

a l i e na t ion a s a p r o b l e m . O f c ou r s e , ne i t he r G r a m s c i no r L e n i n w a s f a m i l i a r

w i t h t he M a r x i a n t he m a t i c o f a li e na t i on s inc e t he Manuscr ip t s a n d t h e

Grundrisse

w e r e u n k n o w n t o t h e m . Y e t , w h i le G r a m s c i c o n c r e t e l y d e al s w i t h

t he s ubs t a n t i a l i ss ues i nvo lve d , L e n i n a l t oge t he r i gno r es t he m .

I n L e n i n , t he f oc us i s a l w a ys on

p o w e r

a nd on t he

organizational means

t o

c onq ue r i t. T hus , t he c om i ng o f s oc ia l is m t e nds t o be s e e n as a s o l u t i on t o t he

c a p i t a l i s t p r ob l e m s o f p r oduc t i on , e f f i c i e nc y , a nd o r ga n i z a t i on r a t he r t ha n i n

t e r m s o f t he r i s e o f a ne w hum a n i t y , a ne w c i v i l i z a t i on , a nd t he a bo l i t i on o f

d o m i n a t i o n ( w h i c h a r e s e e n a s s u p e r s t ru c t u r a l e p i p h e n o m e n a a u t o m a t i c a l l y

t a k e n c a re o f w i t h t h e es t a b li s h m e n t o f t h e w o r k e r s ' s ta t e ) . I n G r a m s c i , o n

t he o t he r ha nd , t he s t re s s is a l w a ys on t he l a t te r , w i t h the f o r m e r be i ng

m e r e l y t he m e a ns f o r i ts a c h i e ve m e n t . U n l i ke L uk f ic s , f o r w ho m t he p r ob l e m

of a l i e na t ion is l oc a t e d s qua r e l y i n t he c a p i t a li s t d i v is ion o f l a bo r , i n G r a m s c i

i t i s a lways a poli t ical pr ob l e m . 66 T h i s doe s no t m e a n t ha t G r a m s c i a lt oge t he r

i gno r e s t he p r o du c t i on p r oc e s s . W he n he de a ls w i t h i t , how e ve r , it is no t a s i f

i t were a s e t o f in t e rac t ing abs t rac t ca tegor i es , a s in Lukf ics , o r an ob jec t ive

th ing

as in Lenin , bu t a s a

living

a c t i v i t y w h i c h i n c a p i t a l is m r e duc e s hu m a n

be i ngs t o t he l e ve l o f m e r e a n i m a l s a nd c ons e que n t l y ge ne r a t e s a po l i t i c a l

c on f r on t a t i on e ve n t ua l l y l e a d i ng t o c o m m un i s m . T h i s is b r i l li a n t ly c a p t u r e d

i n a l ong pa ss a ge w or t h quo t i ng i n f u l l :

T h e c o m p o s i t o r . . , h a s to k e e p h is h a n d s a n d e y e s c o n s t an t l y in m o v e -

m e n t , a nd t h i s m a ke s h i s m e c ha n i z a t i on e a si er . Bu t i f one r e a ll y t h i nks

a bo u t i t , t h e e f f o r t t h a t t he s e w o r ke r s ha ve t o m a ke in o r de r t o is o l a te

f r o m t h e o f t e n f a s c i n a t i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e n t o f a t e x t ( a n d t h e m o r e

fasc ina t ing i t i s t he l e ss w or k i s d one and th e l e s s we l l ) i t s wr i t t en

s ym bo l i s a t i on , t h i s pe r ha ps i s t he g r e a t e s t e f f o r t t ha t c a n be r e qu i r e d i n

a ny t r a de . H ow e ve r i t i s done , a nd i t is no t t he s p ir i tua l de a t h o f m a n .

O n c e t h e p r o c e s s o f a d a p t a t io n h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d , w h a t r e al ly h a p p e n s is

t h a t t h e b r a i n o f th e w o r k e r , f a r fr o m b e i n g m u m m i f i e d , re a c h e s a st a te o f

c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m . T h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t is c o m p l e t e l y m e c h a n i z e d is t h e

phys i c a l ge s tu r e ; t he m e m or y o f t he t r a de , r e duc e d t o s im p l e ge s t u re s


17/28


18/28


19/28

503

viks? ) , r e ly ing on our exper i ence as workers , e s t ab l i sh ing a s t r i c t , an i ron

d i s c i p l i ne , s uppo r t e d by s t a t e pow e r a nd t he a r m e d w or ke r s , s ha l l r e duc e

t he r o l e o f t he s t a t e o f f i c ia l s to t ha t o f s i m p l y c a r ry i ng ou t ou r i n s tr uc -

t i ons a s r e spons i b l e , m od e r a t e l y pa i d " m a na ge r s " . va

T he s e d i f f e r e nc e s i n e m pha s i s be t w e e n G r a m s c i a nd L e n i n do m a ke a g r e a t

de a l o f d i f f e r e nc e onc e t he y t u r n f r om a bs t r a c t ph i l o s oph i c a l s pe c u l a t i on i n t o

s ta te pol ic ies .

I n c om pa r i ng L e n i n ' s a nd G r a m s c i ' s t he o r i e s o f the pa r t y , T og l i a t ti unw a r -

r e n t e d l y a s s um e s t ha t L e n i n d i d ha ve a t he o r y o f t he pa r t y . A s Ca r l o ha s

c o n v i n ci n g ly s h o w n , h o w e v e r , L e n in " d o e s n o t p r e s e n t o n e , b u t

a series

o f

c o m p l e x a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o s i ti o n s '7 9 o n t h e q u e s ti o n o f p a r t y o r g a n iz a -

t i on . A c a r e f u l s t udy o f t he 45 vo l um e s o f h i s Collected Works revea l s tha t

t he r e is a n e c onom i s t i c a c c ou n t du r i ng t he 1890s , t he w e l l - know n t he o r y o f

What Is to Be Done? a m u c h l o o s e r a c c o u n t d u r i n g t h e p e ri o d b e t w e e n 1 9 0 5

a nd 1919 , t he bu r e a uc r a t i c v i e w s i m p l i c i t i n Left-Wing Communism: An

Infantile Disorder

a nd t he a nx i ous f o r e bod i ng s o f t he ve r y l as t ye a r s . T he r e is

no j u s t i f i c a t i on f o r t he hy po s t a t i z a t i o n o f t he v ie w s c on t a i ne d i n What Is t o

Be Done? t o t he l e ve l o f the L e n i ni st t h e o r y o f th e p a r t y , o t h e r t h a n th e

un f o r t una t e f a c t t ha t t he s e v i e w s ha ve be s t f i t t he bu r e a uc r a t i c c o l l e c t i v i s t

r e g im e s a nd , i t s hou l d be a dde d , g e ne r a l ly r e f l e c t L e n i n ' s ow n p o l i ti c a l

p r a c t ic e s . T he a s c r i p t ion o f t he v i e w s o f What Is to Be Done? t o G r a m s c i

be c om e s f u r t he r s u s pe c t w he n i t is r e a li z e d t ha t G r a m s c i w a s no t e v e n

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s pa r t i c u l a r w or k . s ~

Bu t e v e n i f T og l ia t t i ha d be e n c o r r e c t i n l oc a t i ng L e n i n ' s t he o r y o f t he pa r t y

in

What Is to Be Done?

new proble r r i s would a r i s e . Desp i t e the super f i c i a l

s i m i l a r it y i n t he e m p ha s i s on i n t e ll e c t ua ls bo t h i n G r a m s c i a nd i n L e n i n ,

t he r e i s no r e l a t i on w ha t s oe v e r be t w e e n t he t w o . I n

What Is to Be Done?

L e n i n , f o l l ow i ng K a u t s ky , s ha r p l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s be t w e e n t he i n t e l l e c t ua l s a s

h i s tor i ca l subjects w ho , be c a us e o f t he i r p r i v i l e ge d pos i t i on , c a n ge ne r a t e

s o ci al is t t h e o r y " a s n a t u ra l a n d i n e v i ta b l e o u t c o m e o f th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t hou gh t ' ' s l a nd t he p r o l e t a r i a t a s t he pa ss ive ob/ect w hi c h c a n be a c t i va t e d

on l y t h r ou gh t he bou r ge o i s i n t e l le c t ua l s ' dona t i on o f a n o t he r w i s e , nna t t a i n -

a b l e r e vo l u t i ona r y c ons c i ous ne s s . I n f a c t , t he p r o l e t a r i a t c ou l d s pon t a n e ous -

ly a t t a in c l a s s consc iousness on ly i f , a s ind iv idua l s , some except iona l members

be c om e i n t e ll e c tua l s N o t h i ng is f u r t he r f r om t h i s t ha n G r a m s c i ' s c l a im t ha t

" a l l m e n a r e i n t e ll e c tua l s ' s z a nd h i s c o ns t a n t be r a t i ng o f t hos e w ho a r e

o r d i na r i l y r e f e r r e d t o a s " i n t e l l e c t ua l s , " i . e . , t hos e w ho t h i nk a bs t r a c t i de a s .

I n f a c t , h is de f i n i t i on o f o r ga n i c i n t e l le c t ua l s c ove r s the w ho l e g r oup a b le t o

" b e a n o r ga n i z e r o f s o c i e t y in ge ne r a l i nc lud i ng a ll i ts c om pl e x o r ga n i s m s a nd


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services, r igh t up to the s ta te o rganism. '83 To the e x t en t th a t b e ing an

in t e l l e c tua l doe s n o t m e r e ly invo lve th ink ing a bs t r a c t ly , bu t ob je c t i f y ing

ideas, a n d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a r t y d o e s th i s, a ll m e m b e r s o f

the pa r ty a r e i n t e ll e c tua l s . The o f t - qu o te d pa ssage a c c o r d ing to w h ic h T he

popu la r e l e me n t ' f e e l s ' bu t doe s no t a lwa ys know o r unde r s t a nd ; t he i n t e l -

l e c tua l e l e me n t ' know s ' b u t doe s no t a lwa ys unde r s t a nd a nd in pa r t i c u l a r

does no t a lways fee l , '84 c lea r ly shows Gram sc i ' s v iew o f in te l lec tua ls in

c a p i t a l i s t soc i e ty a s pa r t i a l be ings who c a n be c omple t e d on ly by r e in t e g r a -

t ion wi th the soc ia l whole . Unl ike in W hat l s t o Be D one ? , i t is no t a m a t t e r

o f e x t e r na l ly ma n ipu la t ing o the r w i se pas sive p r o l e t a r ia ns , bu t o f i n t e g r a ting

t h e t w o a n d t h u s r e m e d y i n g t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s c r e a te d o n b o t h s id es b y t h e

d iv is ion be tw e e n m e n ta l a nd phys i c a l l a bo r . The no t io n o f t he pa r ty a s t he

M ode r n P r ince - t he c o l l e c tive w i ll - is i n no wa y r e duc ib le t o Le n in ' s t e n

wise m en ' s s pu l l ing the s t rings o f pup pe t -pro le ta r ians . I t i s , r a the r , the

e m b r y o o f a n e w s o c i e t y c o n s t i t u t e d b y p e o p l e ab le t o b o t h t h i n k a n d f e el ,

based on the overc om ing of the soc ia l d iv is ions.

hilosophy

I n t e r e s t ing ly e no ugh , T og l i a t t i d id no t a t t e m p t t o d r a w a ny pa ra l le ls be tw e e n

L e n i n 's p h i l o s o p h y ( o r w h a t o f fi c ia l c o m m u n i s t o r t h o d o x y h a s c o d i f i e d a s

M a r x is t -Le n in i st p h i lo sop hy) a nd Gr a msc i ' s. S uc h a s tudy , howe v e r , ha s be e n

ma d e by the t r a ns l a to r o f Gr a msc i ' s wor k in to Ge r m a n . 86 Ta k ing L e n in 's

M ate r ia l i sm and Empir ioc r i t i c i sm a s h is m o d e l o f o r t h o d o x y , R i e c h e rs f in d s

tha t Gr a m sc i ha s r e duc e d M a r x ism to sub je ct ive i dea l ism. 87 A l thou gh

R ie c he r s a c knowle dge s t ha t Le n in ' s M ate r ia l i sm and Empir ioc r i t i c i sm has

be e n in s t r ume n ta l i z e d to s e t t he pa c e f o r a l l subse que n t S ov ie t ph i lo soph ic a l

deb a te , 8s he ignores the scores o f c r i t ic isms , f ro m b ot h M arxist s as we l l a s

non - Ma r x i st s , wh ic h ha ve show n tha t t h e bo ok ha s ve r y l i t tl e t o do w i th

M arxism, com ple te l ly t r iv ia l izes the d ia lec t ic and , a s K orsc h has pu t i t ,

drags

the wh ole d ebate be tw een mater ia l ism a nd ideali sm back to a h is tor ica l s tage

wh ich G erman ideali sm f ro m K an t to Hege l had a lready surpassed .'89 Th is is

no t t he p l a c e t o onc e a ga in f l og the de a d ho r se o f Mater ia l i sm and Empir io-

cri t ic ism wi th c r i t i que s o f i t s i n f a mous the o r y o f r e f l e c t ion , i t s me c ha n i s t i c

ep is temology and genera l ly vu lga r ma te r ia l i sm. I t i s suf f ic ien t to po in t ou t ,

w i t h A d o r n o , t h a t a l t h o u g h L e n i n w a n t e d t o e x p o s e t h e c o m p l i c i ty o f

sub je c tive pos i ti v ism wi th t he ' pow e r s t ha t be ' , t he who le e f f o r t t u r ne d ou t

to be a n a n t i - i n t e ll e c tua l t i r a de in wh ic h th i s po l i t i c a l ne e d tu r ne d a ga inst

the ve r y the o r e t i c a l goa l o f knowle dge . ' 9~

A l t h o u g h Mater ia l i sm and Empir iocr i t ic i sm was ava ilab le on ly in Russ ian ( th e

f i r s t G erm an t rans la t ion app eared on ly in the la te 19 20s) , 91 and I ta l ian


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va t ions c onn e c te d w i th t he a na lysis o f f a sci sm, he ha d g r a dua lly c om e to

de ve lop , w i th in h is t h e o r e t i c a l a r sena l , a c o nc e p t o f t he s t a t e a nd o f i t s

r e l a ti ons t o c iv i l soc i e ty wh ic h r e j e c t e d a ll d i c ho tom ous sc he me s o f

a t r a d i t i ona l t yp e a nd sough t , r a the r , t o t r a c e t he p r e s e nc e o f t he S t a t e

in t ha t p r iv a t e a nd p r e - S ta t e ma ss r e a l i t y wh ic h is c iv i l soc i e ty . 9s

I n t h i s r e spe c t , G r a msc i is t he on ly M a r x is t o f h is ge n e r a t ion whose tho ugh t

wa s a b l e t o w i th s t a nd tha t h i s to r ic a l wa te r she d r e p r e se n te d by F a sci sm,

S ta lin i sm a nd the sh i f t f r om e n t r e p r e ne u r i a l t o m on op o ly c a p i ta l ism.

T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e p r o v id e s a f o r m u l a t i o n o f M a r x is m f re e f r o m a ll t h e

t r a d i t iona l t r app ings o f o r th od ox ve r sions , Gr a msc i is no t on ly ve r y l i ke ly

to r e m a in the t he o r e t i c a l gu ide f o r t he I t a li a n a nd F r e nc h C om m uni s t

P a r ti e s, b u t a l so t o p r ov ide a f r a me w or k f r om wh ic h to t r a nsc e nd the i r

r e f o rm i s m a f t e r t h e y c o m e t o p o w e r i n th e n e x t d e c a d e . G i v e n t h e c l o su r e o f

the Ma r x i s t pe r spe c t ive e l s e whe r e , i f Ma r x i sm i s t o be c ome a me a n ing f u l

pol i t ica l force in the W est , i t wil l have to fo l low a G ramsc ian pa th .

N O T S

1 . T h e a l m o s t r e l ig i o u s a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e u n c r it ic a l ly a c c e p t e d u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f

o r t h o d o x M a r x i s m - p r o l e t a r i a t , p a r t y , c l a ss , e t c . - c a n b e s e e n i n t h e p o l i t i c a l

t r a j e c t o r y o f

N e w L e f t R e v i e w .

U n w i l l in g t o g iv e u p t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f o r th o -

d o x y , a n d h a v i n g f i n a ll y r e a li z e d t h e u n t e n a b i l i t y o f A l th u s s e r i a n is m , t h e j o u r n a l

h a s b e e n t r y i n g t o r e s u s c i t a t e t h e c a d a v e r o f T r o t s k y i s m i n t h e s e a r c h f o r a v i a b l e

w a y t o r e - c y c l e L e n i n i s m a n d B o l s h e v i k n o s t a l g ia .

2 . T i t o P e r l i n i ,

G r a m s e i e il G r a m s e i s m o

( M i l a n , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 1 7 9 .

3. 1bid.

p . 1 7 0 .

4 . [b i d .

p . 151 .

5 . F o r a n a c c u r a te a c c o u n t o f t h e e x o d u s o f G r a m s c i 's

P r i s o n N o t e b o o k s

f r o m

G r a m s c i 's d e a t h u p t o t h e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d d e f i n it iv e e d i ti o n , s e e V a l e n t i n o

G a r r a t a n a , P r e f a z i o n e t o A n t o n i o G r a m s c i ,

Q u a d e r n i d e l C a rc er e

( T u r i n , 1 9 7 5 ) ,

V o l . I , p p . x x i x - x x x v . F o r a g e n e r a l ly a c c u r a t e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f

G r a m s c i a n s t u d ie s , se e A l a s da i r B . D a v i d s o n , T h e V a r y i n g S e a s o n o f G r a m s c i a n

S t u d i e s , i n

P o l i t i c a l S t u d i e s

X X : 4 ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 ), p p . 4 4 8 - 4 6 1 . F o r a h i g h l y ,

p o l e m i c a l , r e p e t i t i v e , a n d g e n e r a l l y d i s o r g a n i z e d - y e t a t t i m e s p e n e t r a t i n g -

a n a l y s i s , s e e P e r l i n i ,

op. cir.

e s p e ci a ll y p p . 7 - 3 5 .

6 . P e r l i n i ,

op. c iL p. 8 .

7 . T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , h o w e v e r , m u s t t o a g r e a t e x t e n t b e t r a c e d b a c k t o a m b i g u i t i e s

i n M a r x ' s o w n w o r k s . G r a m s c i h i m s e l f w a s a w a r e o f t h is e a r ly i n h is l if e w h e n h e

w r o t e t h a t : I t is n o t s u r p ri s in g th a t M a r x i n t r o d u c e d i n h i s w o r k p o s it iv i s ti c

e l e m e n t s . I t is e x p la i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t M a r x w a s n o t a p r o f e s s i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r

a n d h e o c c a s i o n a l l y d o z e d o f f . W h a t i s c e r t a i n , h o w e v e r , is t h a t t h e e s s e n c e o f h i s

d o c t r i n e is i ts d e p e n d e n c e o n p h i lo s o p h i c a l i d e a l i sm . A n t o n i o G r a m s c i , i n

I1 Gr i do

d e l P o p o l o

( O c t o b e r 1 9 , 1 9 1 8 ) ; n o w i n E n g l i s h in P . C a v a l c a n t i a n d P . P i c c o n e , ed s . ,

H i s t o r y P h i l o s o p l~ y a n d C u l t u r e i n t h e Y o u n g G r a rn sc i

( S t . L o u i s , 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 1 8 . F o r

a n e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s io n o f G r a m s c i ' s d e b u n k i n g o f al l p o s i ti v is t a n d d e t e r m i n i s t


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c l o s e a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e v e n t s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b r e a k a s i s p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e

p r e s e n t l y a v a il a b le d o c u m e n t s . T h e i s s ue t h a t l e d t o G r a m s c i ' s b r e a k w i t h t h e

I n t e r n a t i o n a l a ls o l e d L u k ~ c s , a f t e r t h e B l u m T h e s e s - w h i c h p a r a ll e le d

G r a m s c i ' s p o s i t i o n - t o g i v e u p a n y f u r t h e r d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y - a t l e a s t u p t o

1 9 5 6 . I n v i e w o f a ll t h i s , i t is s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d o t h e r w i s e a l e r t i n d e p e n d e n t s c h o l a r s

s u c h a s D a v i d s o n (op.c i t . , p . 4 5 6 n . ) u n c r i t ic a l ly a c c e p t s p u r i o u s r e a so n s p u t f o r t h

b y p a r t y w a t c h - d o g s s u c h as G a r r a t a n a a n d R a g i o

Piccone - Gramsci's Marxism. Beyond Lenin and Togliatti

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