I have nothing to offer but blood , toil, tears , and sweat.

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I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. (W. Churchill - May 13, 1940) Capire come funziona LHC non e’ semplicissimo, ma proviamoci questa lezione e’ cercare di farvi capire qualcosa ( non tutto ) s LHC. Alla fine ( spero ) le frasi qui sotto non saranno piu’ un in * We ha ve a kic ker prob l em Stron g fo cu si ng for L HC used ad ATLAS IP Avoid magnet quench “Two in one” dipole Scrubbing run Double bacth injection @ PSB LHC: la macchina e il timing E. Scapparone Apr. 28, 2010

description

LHC: la macchina e il timing. E. Scapparone Apr. 28, 2010. Scopo di questa lezione e’ cercare di farvi capire qualcosa ( non tutto ) su come Funziona LHC. Alla fine ( spero ) le frasi qui sotto non saranno piu’ un incubo…. e *. b used ad ATLAS IP. We have a kicker problem. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Transcript of I have nothing to offer but blood , toil, tears , and sweat.

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I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.(W. Churchill - May 13, 1940)

Capire come funziona LHC non e’ semplicissimo, ma proviamoci

Scopo di questa lezione e’ cercare di farvi capire qualcosa ( non tutto ) su comeFunziona LHC. Alla fine ( spero ) le frasi qui sotto non saranno piu’ un incubo…..

* We have a kicker problem

Stro

ng

focu

sing

for L

HC

used ad ATLAS IP

Avoid

mag

net q

uench

“Two in one” dipole

Scrubbing run

Double bacth injection @ PSB

LHC: la macchina e il timing E. ScapparoneApr. 28, 2010

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I NUMERI DELLA MACCHINA:

- 2808 bunch costituiti da 1.15 *1011 protoni ciascuno;- 370 MJ per fascio (vedremo poi cosa significa);- 1232 dipoli da 8.3 T;- oltre 400 quadrupoli;- 0.58 A per fascio ( una corrente mostruosa 1 A = 1C/s ~ 1019 e-/s);- luminosita’ fino a 1034 cm-2 s-1;- energia nel centro di massa 14 TeV;- Luminosita’ 1034 cm-2 s-1;

Perche’ non 15 TeV ? Perche non 1012 ppb, perche’ non 1035 cm-2s-1 ?

Durante questa lezione, piu’ che elencare i numeri, cerchiamo di capireQuali siano i “constraint” che fissano questi numeri.

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Energia & luminosita’

Parametro fondamentale della macchina: e’ quel numero che moltiplicato per la sezione d’urto dà il rate. Dipende dalla macchina e non dal tipo diprocesso studiato. E’ dato da una formula, ma va misurato ( prendo un processoben calcolabile a livello teorico, misuro il rate e ottengo la luminosita’). Verra’ trattatoin dettaglio nelle lezioni del Prof. Villa.

L = (k * f * Nb1 * Nb2* F) / ( * )

Numero di particellePer bunch nel fascio 1(2)

Comunemente si dice/scrive che al denominatore ci sono “le dimensioni trasverse dei fasci” E’ vero ma poi quando sono scritte in termini di emittanza e ampiezza di focheggiamento ? Quale e’ il significato intuitivo ?Ma perche’ Van der Meer ha preso un nobel per “raffreddare” gli antiprotoni e poinella luminosita’ questo termine non compare ?

Frequenza di rivoluzione dei fasciNumero di bunch

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Senza raffreddamento stocastico niente Zo all’ SppS.Se al denominatore ci sono le dimensioni trasverse del fascio (e solo quelle), dove compare il fatto che il fascio e’ freddo o caldo ?

Ma cosa vuol dire che il fascio e’ freddo o caldo ?

Bunch dalla mia sedia in counting room

3/2 K T = ½ m <v2>

I protoni hanno momenti non identici e quindi esiste una dispersione intorno al momento medio analogia con la termodinamica.

Un fascio e’ tanto piu’ freddo quanto piu’ le particelle che lo compongono hanno momento identico QUESTA INFORMAZIONE DA QUALCHE PARTE DEVE COMPARIRE IN L

Centro di massa solidale al bunch

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MA ALLORA COSA E’ QUEL al denominatore ???????

Cominciamo dall’inizio ( altrimenti non si capisce niente…..). Non e’ un corsodi fisica degli acceleratori, ma non siamo neanche su “La Gaia scienza” di La7..

Le particelle in un acceleratore devono viaggiare su un’orbita chiusa. Per curvarle uso dei magneti detti “dipoli” ( F = q v X B). Problema: cosa succede se due protoni hanno stesso momento iniziale, stessa posizione iniziale, ma un angolo iniziale leggermente diverso ?

start Differenza…

Spostamento di ARispetto a B

A

B

Oscillazione di betatrone. E’ la base di tutte le oscillazioni trasverse in un acceleratore

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E’ ovvio che devo focheggiare queste particelle…

Focheggio in una dimensione (x) e sfocheggio nell’altra (y)

QUADRUPOLI

BX = - g*y; BY = -g*x , Bs = 0.

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s

x

y

longitudinaleorizzontale

verticale

Sistema di riferimento

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Traiettoria stabile (Xd)

Mi sposto di un po’

= p/qB

Sottraggo 3) – 1) e divido per vs

1)

2)

3)

o

Xd

d2x/dt2 = d(x’vs)/dt =ds/dt*d(x’vs)/ds = vs*x’’*vs = vs

2*x’’

Dobbiamo impostare le equazioni differenziali.

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1 B’ + B0 Bo

( )Quindi K(s) = = 1/2 +B’/B0

K(x) = B’/B0 = g/B0 K(y) = 1/2 +B’/B0r = 1/2 -g/B0

B

sgsk

sB

sgsk

y

x

ysky

xskx

y

x

)()(

)(

1)()(

2

0)(''

0)(''

EQUAZIONI DI HILLS

Particella carica deflessa da un dipolo e focheggiata su x,y.

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Soluzione dell’equazione e’

x = s cos (s+0) x’= - / (s) cos ((s) +0) + / (s) sin ((s) +0)

Se adesso andate a plottare x verso x’ ( ma si puo’ fare anche matematicamentesostituendo ……)

cos ((s) +0) = x/ (s)x’= - s) *x/ s) + (s) *sin(…..)x’+ (s) *x/ (s) = (s) *sin(…..)x’2 + 2x2/ +2x’x= (1-cos2(……))=(1-x2/)= -x2/x’2+ x2(2/+1/) + 2x’x=x’2+ x22 + 2x’x=

=(1+2)/

sx’(s)2 + 2x’(s)x(s) x2(s)s

Equazione ellisse (conica),Con costante

(s) = ∫ ds/(s)’=(1+2)/

Funzione o ampiezza dibetatrone

Fase di betatrone

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ATTENZIONE: E’ NEL PIANO x, x’ = dx/ds. L’area di questo ellisse e’ e si misura in (m * rad) e nella realta’ in ( mm*mrad).

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Muovendoci lungo l’orbita la forma dell’ellisse varia, sotto l’azione dei quadrupoli, ma lasua area resta costante ( teorema di Liouville).

/ (s)

s)x

x’ *(s)x’

x s)

ATTENZIONE: se sostituisco in x’’+K(s)x=0 le , trovo che dato K(s), (s) e’ determinato. (s) rivela le caratteristiche significative delle traiettorie delle particelle del fascio. Le funzioni sono due x(s) e y(s)

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OK, ma cosa e’ N ?

Durante l’accelerazione il momento trasverso delle particelle non e’ modificato, ladivergenza invece si x’ = p’/p (diminuisce). Allora definisco emittanza normalizzata la quantita’

N = , che e’ invariante durante l’accelerazione.

e’ l’emittanza del fascio

Definizioni

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STABILITA’ DEI FASCI

Supponiamo che la nostra particella si allontani dall’orbita stabilita nelpiano orizzontale

Su x = R la forza e’ mv2/R – q/cvBy

Per “riportarla all’ordine” serve un campo B non uniforme, dotato di un gradiente tale che a una distanza r = R + x = R(1 + x/R) By = BoY + (dBy/dx) x= Boy(1 + R/Boy* dBy/dx*x/R).Definisco n =-R/Boy (dBy/dx) e posso scrivere la forza comeFx = mv2/r -qvBoy(1 - nx/R).Siccome 1/r ~ 1/(R(1+x/R)) ~ (1 –x/R)/RFx = mv2/R *(1-x/R) -qvBoy(1 - nx/R) = mv2/R - mv2/R*x/R –qvBoy + qvBoynx/R == - mv2x/R2 (1-n)

= mv2 /R

Se deve essere Fx < 0 allora deve essere 1-n<0 n<1

s

x

y

longitudinaleorizzontale

verticale

R

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s

x

y

longitudinaleorizzontale

verticale

Supponiamo adesso che la particelle si allontani lungo l’orbita verticale

Ci vuole una forza Fy=q/cvBxrot B =0, quindi dBx/dy = dBy/dxBx = ∫ dBx/dy dy = ∫ dBy/dx dy = ∫ -nB0y/R dy = -n (Boy/R) y,Quindi Fy = - q/cv (Boy/R) y * n.Deve essere negativa, quindi n>0

Quindi 1 < n < 0 condizione di focheggiamento debole

Si puo’ fare a LHC ? NO. Perche’ I magneti diventerebbero enormi. Col focheggiamento debole non si va oltre i sqrt(s) = 10 GeV. E ALLORA ?

http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/history/focusing.asp Cosmotron(3.3 GeV)

Cosmotron raggiunge il limite del focheggiamento debole.Una macchina a 33 GeV (fattore 10) peserebbe 100,000 ton.

AGS (33 GeV)

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COSMOTRON (3.3 GeV, 1950-1966)

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Courant, Livingston and Snyder inventano il focheggiamento forte:Alternando magneti focheggianti e defocheggianti l’effetto netto e’ un focheggiamentoglobale. Equivalenza con l’ottica

LHC 1 arco e’ costituito da 23 FODO cells.

23 x 110 x 8 = = 20240 85 % del ring di LHC

sestupolo

ottupolo

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Dunque una parte importante del lavoro dei progettisti di un acceleratore e’ trovareUna configurazione dei magneti che dia un (s) soddisfacente. In particolare dobbiamoFare in modo di avere un “focheggiamento forte” ( = piccoli ).

a

a

sin likex(0) = 0x’(0)≠0

cos likex(s=0) ≠0x’(s=0)=0

Molti giri dopo

Ci sono infinite curve possibili, ma tuttesono dentro un “envelope” di dimensione sqrt().

Se mi metto a un certo azimuth eAspetto, primo o poi vedo la Particelle passare per sqrt()

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envelope

Se voglio alta luminosita’ piccole dimensioni trasverse basso

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Purtroppo un collider con basso ovunque, porta instabilita’ ( risonanze). L’idea di Robinson-Voss e’ stata quella di ritenere possibile la presenza nell’acceleratoredi punti a basso ….nelle vicinanze del punto di interazione, lasciando il restodell’acceleratore a piu’ alti LOW INSERT.

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Immaginate di “rompere” il lattice di un acceleratore e di mettere nell’inserto alcuni Magneti tali che la matrice di trasporto del fascio renda le (x,x’) all’ingresso = (x,x’) all’uscita. Stessa cosa per (y,y’). Un inserto del genere non altera il resto del fascio. Quindi serve un inserto con un forte “constraint”. Riprendiamo la soluzione delle equazioni di Hill.

(s) x’(s)2 + 2x’(s)x(s) (s) + x2(s)(s) =

Pongo = e suppongo e = , ’’= -K(s) +1/3

X = (s) e cos(s0)X’ =’ e cos ( ) – e sin( ) ’X’’ = ’’e cos( ) – ’ e sin()’ – ’e sin() ’ – ecos() ’2 – e sin() ’’

Dall’equazione di Hill’’e cos( ) – ’ e sin()’ – ’e sin() ’ – e cos() ’2 – e sin() ’’ +K(s) e cos()=0

’’ –2 ’ tg ( )’ – ’2 – tg’’ +K =0 ’’ –2 ’ tg ( )/ – – tg-1/4 +K =0 ’’ – 3 +K = 0

E’ una identita’….

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’’ – 1/3 +K = 0

= ’1/2 * -1/2 ’’’ = ¼ * ’2 1/2 -1/2’’

– ¼ * -3/2’2 + 1/2 -1/2’’–– 1/3/2 +K = 0-1/4 ’2 + 1/2’’ +K2 = 1

Se sono in un inserto con K(s) = 0 una soluzione e’

= 0(1 + (s-s0)2/02) (dimostrazione banale)

Il minimo di sta a s=s0 e vale =0.Notate che va come s2/0

2 tanto piu’ piccolo e’ 02, tanto piu’ velocemente

Cresce allontanandoci dal minimo. Il problema e’ che se chiediamo s grande perche’ dobbiamo mettere un esperimento (grosso) dove e’ piccolo ( quindi non vogliamo magneti tra i piedi, quindi K(s) = 0, allora immediatamente al di fuori del minimo diventa enorme.

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B enorme e’ un problema perche’ l’envelope del fascio diventa grande e quindiserve un quadrupolo grande dopo il punto di interazione. Non basta: se c’e’ undisturbo sull’orbita, questa si puo’ correggere (disturbed closed orbit). Il displacement dell’orbita e’ proporzionale a

~ 50 cm

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LHC in a nutshell

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LHC lay-out

C = 26658.90 m

Arc = 2452.23 m

DS = 2 x 170 m

INS = 2 x 269 m

Free space

for detectors: 23 m

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Si puo’ accelerare un protone da 0 a 7 TeV usando un unico anello ?NO, e’ competamente inefficiente. Richiedere un’alta luminosita’ significachiedere alta brillanza e questo, come abbiamo visto e’ un problema a basse energie. Due step:1) Il PSB inietta nel PS con due cicli anziche’ uno ( meta’ carica);2) Il PSB inietta nel PS a 1.4 GeV, anziche’ 1 GeV.

L’iniezione da un acceleratore ad un altro e’ una fase delicata. Si rischiaDi “sporcare” l’emittanza del fascio. Si usano dei magneti con un rampEstremamente veloce, chiamati in gergo “kicker”.

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LHC acceleration system (RF)

RF

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Ripasso:

In linea di principio si puo’ utilizzare una ddp per accelerare particelle. MaNon si puo’ andare oltre una certa HV ( scariche, ).

Wideröe (1928): applicare, al posto di un campo elettrico staticoun campo oscillante con frequenza opportuna tale che la fase cambi durante il tempo di volo fra due gap successive

Nessun dubbio sul fatto che E in un acceleratore circolare debba essere oscillante

VGND

Altrimenti ho accelerazione nella gap,ma decelero dopo.

gap

problema: forte irraggiamento.

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la struttura accelerante consiste in una cavità risonante in cui viene accumulata

l’energia di campi elettromagnetici RF. Come nei tubi a drift il campo elettrico

deve essere sincronizzato con il fascio.

CAVITA’ A RADIOFREQUENZA

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Structure 1: Travelling wave structure: particles

keep in phase with the accelerating waveform.

Phase velocity in the waveguide is greater than c and needs to be reduced to the particle velocity with a series of irises inside the tube whose polarity changes with time.

In order to match the phase of the particles with the polarity of the irises, the distance between the irises increases farther down the structure where the particle is moving faster. But note that electrons at 3 MeV are already at 0.99c.Structure 2:

A series of drift tubes alternately connected to high frequency oscillator.

Particles accelerated in gaps, drift inside tubes .

For constant frequency generator, drift tubes increase in length as velocity increases.

Beam has pulsed structure.

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Set the oscillation frequency so that the period is exactly equal to one revolution period of the particle

Con E piccola rispetta alla particella ideale)

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Abbiamo bisogno di un campo longitudinale. Quando una particella ha energia troppo alta viene curvata poco dai dipoli, quindi compie un’orbita piu’ lunga arriva in ritardo rispetto alla particella ideale :

Arriva con ddp minore accelerata meno E diminuisce

STABILITA’ DI FASE

t

In realta’ le cose funzionano in modo diverso a seconda del pezzo dellasinusoide in cui lavoriamo…….ATTENTI ALLE TRANSIZIONIUna particelle con p>p0 sta su un path piu’ lungo ma e’ piu’ veloce, viceversa una con p<p0 a path piu’ corto ma e’ piu’ lenta…Come si Raggiunge stabilita’ in questo condizione ?

By

p > p0

C

p0

AB

O

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 35

Motion in longitudinal plane• What happens when particle momentum increases?

particles follow longer orbit (fixed B field) particles travel faster (initially)

How does the revolution frequency change with the momentum ?

r

dr

v

dv

f

df

Change in orbit

length

Change in

velocity

But p

p

r

rp

Momentum compactio

n factor

p

dp

v

dv

f

dfpTherefore:

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 36

The frequency - momentum relation

• The relativity theory says

p

dp

v

dv

f

dfp But

c

vd

v

dv

c

Ep

0

c

E

d

dp 30

d

p

dp 2

p

dp

f

dfp

2

1

fixed by the quadrupoles

varies with momentum

(E = E0)

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 37

Transition

• Low momentum ( << 1, 1) p

2

1

The revolution frequency increases as momentum increasesHigh momentum ( 1, >> 1)

p

2

1

The revolution frequency decreases as momentum increases

Lets look at the behaviour of a particle in a constant magnetic field.

For one particular momentum or energy we have:

p

2

1

This particular energy is called the Transition energy

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 38

The frequency slip factor

pdp

pdp

fdf

tr

p

222111

positive

Below transitionp

2

1

p

2

1Transition zero

p

2

1Above transition negati

ve

We found

Transition is very important in proton machines.A little later we will see why….

In the PS machine : tr 6 GeV/c

Transition does not exist in leptons machines,Why?

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 39

Lets see what happens after many turns

1st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 40

Lets see what happens after many turns

100st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 41

Lets see what happens after many turns

200st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 42

Lets see what happens after many turns

400st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 43

Lets see what happens after many turns

500st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 44

Lets see what happens after many turns

600st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 45

Lets see what happens after many turns

700st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 46

Lets see what happens after many turns

800st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 47

Lets see what happens after many turns

900st revolution period

V

time

A

B

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 48

Synchrotron Oscillations

• Particle B has made 1 full oscillation around particle A.• The amplitude depends on the initial phase.

• We call this oscillation:

900st revolution period

V

time

A

B

Exactly like the pendulum

Synchrotron Oscillation

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 49

Longitudinal Phase Space• In order to be able to visualize the motion in the

longitudinal plane we define the longitudinal phase space (like we did for the transverse phase space)

E

t (or )

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 50

Phase Space motion (1)• Particle B oscillates around particle A

– This is synchrotron oscillation

• When we plot this motion in our longitudinal phase space we get:

t (or )

E higher energy

late arrival

lower energy

early arrival

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 51

Phase Space motion (2)• Particle B oscillates around particle A

– This is synchrotron oscillation

• When we plot this motion in our longitudinal phase space we get:

t (or )

E higher energy

late arrival

lower energy

early arrival

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 52

Phase Space motion (3)• Particle B oscillates around particle A

– This is synchrotron oscillation

• When we plot this motion in our longitudinal phase space we get:

t (or )

E higher energy

late arrival

lower energy

early arrival

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 53

Phase Space motion (4)• Particle B oscillates around particle A

– This is synchrotron oscillation

• When we plot this motion in our longitudinal phase space we get:

t (or )

E higher energy

late arrival

lower energy

early arrival

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 54

What happens beyond transition ?• Until now we have seen how things look like below

transition positive

Higher energy faster orbit higher Frev next time particle will be earlier.

Lower energy slower orbit lower Frev next time particle will be later.

negative

Higher energy longer orbit lower Frev next time particle will be later.

Lower energy shorter orbit higher Frev next time particle will be earlier.

What will happen above transition ?

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 55

What are the implication for the RF ?

• For particles below transition we worked on the rising edge of the sine wave.

• For Particles above transition we will work on the falling edge of the sine wave.

• We will see why……..

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 56

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (1)

• Imagine two particles A and B, that arrive at the same time in the accelerating cavity (when Vrf = 0V)

– For A the energy is such that Frev A = Frf.

– The energy of B is higher Frev B < Frev A

accelerating

time

E RF Voltage

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 57

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (2)

• Particle B arrives after A and experiences a decelerating voltage.

– The energy of B is still higher, but less Frev B < Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 58

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (3)

• B has now the same energy as A, but arrives still later and experiences therefore a decelerating voltage.

– Frev B = Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 59

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (4)

• Particle B has now a lower energy as A, but arrives at the same time

– Frev B > Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 60

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (5)

• Particle B has now a lower energy as A, but B arrives before A and experiences an accelerating voltage.

– Frev B > Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 61

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (6)

• Particle B has now the same energy as A, but B still arrives before A and experiences an accelerating voltage.

– Frev B > Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 62

Longitudinal motion beyond transition (7)

• Particle B has now a higher energy as A and arrives at the same time again….

– Frev B < Frev A

time

E RF Voltageaccelerating

decelerating

A

B

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 63

Stationary bunch & bucket

• Bucket area = longitudinal Acceptance [eVs]

• Bunch area = longitudinal beam emittance = .E.t/4 [eVs]

E

t (or )

E

t

Bunch

Bucket

Il bucket definisce l’area entro la quale l’emittanza deve essere contenuta. Il numeroDi bucket dipende dalle RF.

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The motion in the bucket (1)

E

t (or )

V Phase w.r.t.

RF voltage

Synchronous

particle

RF Bucket

Bunch

RF Bucket = area dello spazop delle fasi longitudinale in cui il fascio e’ stabile.

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The motion in the bucket (2)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 66

The motion in the bucket (3)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 67

The motion in the bucket (4)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 68

The motion in the bucket (5)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 69

The motion in the bucket (6)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 70

The motion in the bucket (7)

E

t (or )

V

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 71

The motion in the bucket (8)

E

t (or )

V

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The motion in the bucket (9)

E

t (or )

V

The particle now turns in the other direction w.r.t. a particle below transition

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Before and After Transition

Before transition

Stable, synchronousposition

E

t (or )

After transition

E

t (or )

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Transition crossing in the PS

• Transition in the PS occurs around 6 GeV/c– Injection happens at 2.12 GeV/c– Ejection can be done at 3.5 GeV/c up to 26 GeV/c

• Therefore the particles in the PS must nearly always cross transition.

• The beam must stay bunched

• Therefore the phase of the RF must “jump” by at transition

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Non-adiabatic change (1)

• What will happen when we increase the voltage rapidly ?

E

t (or )

Matched bunch

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Non-adiabatic change (2)

E

t (or )

The bunch is now mismatched w.r.t. to

the bucketIt will start rotating

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Non-adiabatic change (3)

E

t (or )

The frequency of this rotation is equal to the synchrotron frequency

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Non-adiabatic change (4)

E

t (or )

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Non-adiabatic change (5)

E

t (or )

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Non-adiabatic change (6)

E

t (or )

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 81

Non-adiabatic change (7)

E

t (or )

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 82

Non-adiabatic change (8)

E

t (or )

If we let it rotate for long time w.r.t. the

synchrotron frequency then all the particle with smear out, we

call that filamentation

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 83

Non-adiabatic change (9)

E

t (or )

Filamentation will cause an increase in

longitudinal emittance (blow-up)

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 84

Adiabatic change (1)• To avoid this filamentation we have to change slowly

w.r.t. the synchrotron frequency.• This is called ‘Adiabatic’ change.

E

t (or )

Matched bunch

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 85

Adiabatic change (2)

E

t (or )

Bunch is still matched

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 86

E

t (or )

Adiabatic change (3)

Bunch is still matched

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 87

E

t (or )

Adiabatic change (4)

Bunch is still matched

It gets shorter and higher

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Rende Steerenberg, 30-Jan-2008 AXEL - 2008 88

E

t (or )

Adiabatic change (5)

The longitudinal emittance is conserved

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MOMENTO ESTREMAMENTE DELICATO

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A LHC le radiofrequenze a 400 Mhz definiscono 35650 buckets. Con lo spacinga 25 ns si riempiono I buckets 1,11,21….Perche’ alcuni sono vuoti ( max 2808 Bunch) ?

• Long range beam-beam interactions.• The total beam power and damage potential.• The beam lifetime and cleaning efficiency of the collimation sections.• Heat load and beam instabilities due to the Electron cloud effect.• Machine impedance and beam instabilities.• Required gaps for the injection and extraction kicker rise times.• Performance of the LHC injector chain.

Il bunch e’ intrappolato dentro al bucklet 1/(400 MHz) ~ 2.5 ns = 75 cm 7.5 cm e’ la lunghezza del bunch a 7 TeV

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Limit of Stability

• Phase space is a useful idea for understanding the behaviour of a particle beam.

• Longitudinally, not all particles are stable. There is a limit to the stable region (the separatrix or “bucket”) and, at high intensity, it is important to design the machine so that all particles are confined within this region and

are “trapped”.

Example of longitudinal phase space trajectories under a dual harmonic voltage

Note that there are two stable oscillation centres inside the bucket

6.0:,28,60with

2sinsin,

01

10

VV

tVtVtV

s

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Overview: staging in LHC beam production

• Duoplasmatron: 300mA beam current at 92 keV

• RFQ: to 750 keV

• Linac 2: to 50 MeV

• PSB: to 1.4 GeV

• PS: to 28 GeV

• SPS: to 450 GeV

• LHC: to 7 TeV at 180mA beam current

Increase factors:RFQ: 8.2Linac: 66.7PSB: 28PS: 20SPS: 16LHC: 15.5

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Duoplasmatron: H+ source

• Hydrogren gas is fed into a cathode chamber with electrons

• The hydrogen dissociates and forms a plasma confined by magnetic fields

• The plasma is constricted by a canal and extracted through the anode

• The plasma is allowed to expand before forming the proton beam

• The LHC Duoplasmatron operates at 100 kV

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The Duoplasmatron

gas feed

cathode anode

canal

expansion cup

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RF Quadrupole: shaping the beam

• 4 vanes (electrodes) provide a quadrupole RF field

• The RF field provides a transverse focusing of the beam

• Spacing of the vanes accelerates and bunches the beam

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Linac-2: the MeV weapon of choice

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Linac Tank: RF accelerator• The linac tank is a multi-chamber resonant cavity tuned to a specific

frequency

• RF is sent into the tank by waveguides, and normal modes can be excited in the

cavity

• These normal modes create potential differences in the cavities that accelerate

the particle

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Linac 2 is already at LHC spec

• LHC spec (achieved):– 180 mA beam current (192 mA)– 30 s pulse length (120+ s)– 1.2 m transverse rms emittance (1.2 m)

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Down to the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB)

• The beam line to the PSB from the Linac is 80m long

• 20 quadrupole magnets focus the beam along the line

• 2 bending and 8 steering magnets direct the beam

• The PSB will boost the protons up to 1.4 GeV (factor of 28)

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Step delicato per l’emittanza: e’ proprio sul PSB che sto iniettando bunch

50 MeV

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The PS Booster

• Output energy has been increased to 1.4 GeV from 1 GeV for the LHC

• 16 sectioned synchrotron consisting of bending magnets, focusing magnets, and RF cavities

• PSB upgrades are largely to the high power RF system for the energy boost

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Proton Synchrotron: Last low energy step synchrotron

• The PS has been upgraded for 40 and 80 MHz RF operation and new

beam controls have been added

• The PS is responsible for providing the 25 ns bunch separation for the

LHC

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PS accelerating sections

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Space charge effect

Gli effetti Coulombiani del fascio sul singolo protone hanno l’effetto di una lenteche defocalizza su entrambi I piani x,y. L’equazione di Hill diventa (esempio)

y’’ +( K + K sc) y = 0

L’impatto dipende dall’intensita’ dei fasci ( la carica totale e’ maggiore). Due protonia riposo si respingono, ma due protoni in moto manifestano anche una forza attrattivadovuta ai loro campi magnetici ( due fili percorsi da corrente elettrica che scorrenello stesso verso si attraggono…..).

Tutto questo e’ vero anche nel fascio

++ +

++++++++++++

+ +++++++++++++

++

++

+

F F

Fr = qE - v x B = e(Er – vs B)

vs

B

F

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Fx = eIx/(2ca2) K 1/(23)

a

r

E’ un problema alle alte intensita’ e alle basse energie. Come si puo’ limitare ?

Limitare 1/cioe’ alzare l’energia all’iniezione. Due soluzioni;1) Si allungano i LINAC;2) Si mette un piccolo acceleratore circolare a piu’ ring paralleli.

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LHC TIMING

Si dimezza la brillanza

Ordine di estrazione 3-4-2-1.

1 empty

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PS (1959) circonferenza di 628 m. Nel PS ci potrebbero stare 62800 / (11.2 cm + 750 cm) = 82.5 in realta’ 72 750 cm

11 cm

3

4

GAP !

In un primo momento si era pensato al debunching/rebunching ma davaseri problemi, poi nuova soluzione…

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PS SPS 3 o 4 iniezioni a intervalli di 3.6 s. Ogni pacchetto 72 bunch

Durata max 10.6 s. Schema 334 334 334 333 (12 volte). Ciascun pacchetto ha 72 bunch 39 * 72 = 2808 bunch. T= (21.6s*12 )/60 s= 4.3 minuti

Esercizio: calcolare l’altezza del gradino in Ampere

SPS pieno

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DOVE SONO I PUNTI DI INIEZIONE ?

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KICKERThe beam coming from a transfer line is deflected by a septum magnet towards the central orbit of the circular accelerator. This deflection can be many tens of mrads

At the location where the trajectory intersects the central orbit a kicker magnet kicks the beam on axis, removing the residual angle left by the septum (few mrads)

The presence of intermediate magnets (e.g. quadrupoles) between the septum and the kicker has to be taken into account in the definition of the deflection angles

The optics function should be matched;The beam is

injected on axis

• Septum deflects the beam onto the orbit at the centre of kicker• Kicker compensates for the remaining angle

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Dunque un kicker e’ un magnete pulsato, veloce. Il rise time deve esserePiu’ piccolo possibile, altrimenti perdo bunch e il plateau deve essereSenza ripple e lungo alcuni o alcune decine di s, dipende dal numero di bunch da iniettare. Perche’ deve essere un magnete pulsato ?

Il setto puo’ essere pulsato, ma i rising time sono molto piu’ rilassati

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Per deflettere il fascio, come abbiamo visto ci vuole un kicker, il cui rise Time non e’ infinitamente veloce. Quelli che iniettano dall’SPS alla linea di trasferimentoper LHC hanno un rise time di 220 ns ~ 8.8 bunch, con un po’ di furbizia, 8.

kicker

beam

Ma non basta…ci sono gli LHC injector kickers: devono produrre 1.2 Tm; hannoUn rise time di 940 ns ~ 38 bunch.

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Layout (point 8)

5 x MSI septa4 x MKI kickers

TCDD absorber

TDI collimator

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1 x 3 x 4 = 12 missing bunch @ PS

Che fine fanno I protoni finiti fuori buckets ? Devo toglierli di torno prima che provochinoQuench. Servono 3 s per I kicker per metterli in dump: beam cleaning

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I DIPOLI

E’ stato scelto di usare bobine a NbTi

PERCHE’ C’E’ UN COLLARE ?

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F/L =μ0·I1·I2/(2πd)With  I ~11800 A  and  d = 90 mm,F/L = 310 N/m

But we have two sets of 80 cables, so the total force per meter will be:FT = 80·80·310 ~ 2·106 N/m

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I magneti devono essere interconnessi: lavoro molto delicato, richiede un grandenumero di sadature. Il “two in one” rende le interconnessioni più difficili. Il Tunnel di LEP è stretto ( diametro 3.8 m).

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19 settembre settore 3-4 connessione dipolo – quadrupolo. Una connessione Mal fatta ha sviluppato una resistenza su passava una corrente di 8700 A !Questo ha sviluppato un arco elettrico che ha rotto il contenitore di Elio 2 ton diElio fuoriuscite con tale forza da scardinare e danneggiare 53 magneti.

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The “ two in one “ concept: 2 bobine, 1 Fe yoke- Non c’era abbastanza spazio nel tunnel per 2 magneti- Two in one più economico

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Certain materials undergo a phase transition and may become superconducting once their temperature drops below the critical temperature Tc specific for the material. The virtue of superconducting materials is that they are capable of conducting very high currents within small cross sections while having negligibleohmic losses. Thus they require a significantly reduced cooling power compared to normal conducting magnets. However if the temperature, the maximum current density, or the maximum magnetic field inside the material exceeds given limits, the material undergoes reverse phase transition. In case of metallic superconducting alloys, the material may become normal conducting. This reverse phase transition from superconducting to the normal conducting phase is called as quench. In the LHC, the loss of particles inside the magnets is considered the most critical source of magnet quenches ( ma anche stress meccanici).

Cosa e’ il quench ?

SofisticatoSistema di protezioneDei magneti

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10-10 Torr10-6 Torr

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VuotoLa beam pipe, rivestita dal “cold bore” è in diretto contatto con le paretia a

1.9 K. Queste pareti agiscono come una pompa criogenica. Occorre però

minimizzarele diverse sorgenti di riscaldamento.

1) Synchrotron radiation. A LHC 1017 /s/m 0.2 W/m. Questo calore potrebbe

scaldare i magneti a 1.7 K e farli quenchare.

2) “image current” del fascio. Pennello di elettroni che scorre sul tubo. Per limitarlo,

bassa resistività. L’interno della beam pipe è rivestito di rame, che ha bassaresistività a basse temperature, 0.2 W/m

I foto-electtoni sono accelerati dal forte campo elettrico positivo dei bunch di protoni e si accumulano in cascata in una nuvola di elettroni.

Si cura riducendo il numero di bunches e condizionando lo schermo (scrubbing).

3)

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Non tutto si può evitare:

5- 20 K

Bisogna però fare attenzione a non compremettere il vuoto: quei buchi servono afar fuoriuscire le molecole staccate dalla radiazione di sincrotrone.

4) Beam gas interactions non eliminabile. Le particelle prodotte possono scatterare sulle bobine dei magneti causando un quench. Le particelle vengono purtroppo assorbite dalla parte a 1.9 K ( 30 mW/m2)

Beam screen: assorbe i fotoni emessi dal fascio senza farli arrivare alle bobine.

Cold bore

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Le particelle del fascio attraversano una o più cavità alle quali le particelle ritornarnoRipetutamente grazie all’applicazione di un campo magnetico dipolare che determinaUn orbita chiusa.Esiste quindi una particella ideale che arriva alla cavità con energia e posizione Longitudinale esatta, così da ottenere l’esatta quantità di energia per restare in Perfetto accordo con l’acceleratore. Si tratta ovviamente di un fascio ideale: nellaRealtà il fascio ha particelle che seguono una distribuzione di energia e di posizione.

Problema di stabiltà: sotto quali condizioni una particella che all’istante t0 riceveUn’ energia E0, manterrà E e t prossime a quelle iniziali ?

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An RF Cavity…shiny

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Situazione diversa da LEP, dove il ruolo principale delle RF era compensarel’energia persa per irraggiamento. A LHC:- Tenere I protoni del bunch stretti;- ramping dalle energie dell’SPS (450 GeV) - quelle di LHC (7 TeV).Richiesta: alta corrente, dunque e’ necessariaAlta E accumulata nelle RF e bassa impedenza Superconductive RF

8 cavita’ per fascio da 2 MV 16 MV per fascio, tenute a 4.5 K. Sono poste inUn punto in cui la distanza tra I fasci e’ aumentata da 19.5 a 42 cm.

Devono lavorare a un multiplo della frequenza dell’SPS (200 MHz) 400 MHz.

RF OFF

RF ON

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Beam Dump

Cos vuol dire 690 MJ ? E= ½ mv2 ; 300 km/h = 300000/3600 m/s = 83 m/sM = 2*690 * 106 / 6889= 200000 Kg = 200 ton un boeing 747 in atterraggio….

- Magnet quenching is a real danger, with only a small fraction (10-6) needed to quench a SM- A quenched dipole will require a beam dump in a single turn - 7 TeV (690 MJ) dissipated in 89 s- An error in dumping the beam will expose accelerator components to serious radiation risk

Attenzione: nei magneti e’immagazzinata un’energia pari a 10 GJ: Un 747 in volo

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2808*1.15*1011 ~ 3.3*1014 protoni

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Diluizione del fascio su 110 cm.

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Si scalda ma non si fonde con i 360 MJ del fascio

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- Non abbiamo fatto in tempo a parlare di molte cose, es:

- Interazioni fascio-fascio;- Coulomb scattering intra-beam;- Strumentazione del fascio ( come si misura l’emittanza, cosa sono i BPTX ) ?- Risonanze ( da evitare). Dove lavora LHC ?

-BIBLIOGRAFIA:

-Particle accelerator physics I, H. Wiedemann, Springer

- AXEL 2010, Cern Training

- The physics of electron storage rings: an introduction, M. Sands

- The LHC Machine, L. Evans, 2008 JINST S08001