FLUP - Elena Zagar Galvão Aspectos macro- e microlinguísticos das línguas de especialidade...

FLUP - Elena Zagar Galvão

Aspectos macro- e microlinguísticos das línguas de especialidade

Bibliografia Bibliografia

Scarpa, Federica (2001). Scarpa, Federica (2001). La Traduzione La Traduzione Specializzata. Lingue Speciali e Mediazione Specializzata. Lingue Speciali e Mediazione LinguisticaLinguistica. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli Editore.. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli Editore.


Abordagem top-down (do macro- ao micronível linguístico) Principais marcas/características textuais e Principais marcas/características textuais e

retóricas das línguas de especialidade (LE)retóricas das línguas de especialidade (LE) Características a nível sintácticoCaracterísticas a nível sintáctico Características a nível lexicalCaracterísticas a nível lexical

NB: Temos que lembrar que existe uma NB: Temos que lembrar que existe uma ampla sobreposição entre os vários níveis ampla sobreposição entre os vários níveis linguísticos.linguísticos.


Organização do discursoAs LE apresentam uma organização retórica do As LE apresentam uma organização retórica do

discurso diferente da encontrada na língua discurso diferente da encontrada na língua corrente.corrente.

Esta organização varia nas diversas tipologias Esta organização varia nas diversas tipologias textuais e variedades de LE.textuais e variedades de LE.

Os textos de especialidade geralmente aderem a Os textos de especialidade geralmente aderem a cânones linguísticos específicos do género de cânones linguísticos específicos do género de discurso ao qual pertencem, satisfazendo assim as discurso ao qual pertencem, satisfazendo assim as expectativas dos destinatários e facilitando a expectativas dos destinatários e facilitando a comunicação.comunicação.


Organização retórica do discurso

Distribuição das informações de acordo Distribuição das informações de acordo com uma sequência lógica e hierárquica com uma sequência lógica e hierárquica adequada às características que se pretende adequada às características que se pretende descrever;descrever;

Estruturação em unidades retóricas Estruturação em unidades retóricas constituidas por capítulos, secções/partes, constituidas por capítulos, secções/partes, parágrafos, etc.parágrafos, etc.


Existe um elevado grau de correlação entre o Existe um elevado grau de correlação entre o metodo de argumentação e a formulação do metodo de argumentação e a formulação do respectivo discurso, isto é entre aspectos respectivo discurso, isto é entre aspectos epistemológicos e concretização destes epistemológicos e concretização destes aspectos a nível textual.aspectos a nível textual.

Isto explica porque existe uma clara padronização Isto explica porque existe uma clara padronização ((standardizationstandardization) da forma de organizar os ) da forma de organizar os conteúdos dos textos de especialidade (às conteúdos dos textos de especialidade (às vezes, independentemente da área disciplinar à vezes, independentemente da área disciplinar à qual pertencem, sobretudo quando se trata de qual pertencem, sobretudo quando se trata de discurso científico académico).discurso científico académico).


Quanto menos especializado (ou mais Quanto menos especializado (ou mais divulgativo) é um texto de especialidade, tanto divulgativo) é um texto de especialidade, tanto mais flexível será a sequência das diferentes mais flexível será a sequência das diferentes passagens lógico-semanticas.passagens lógico-semanticas.

Por ex., a sequência das partes funcionais em que Por ex., a sequência das partes funcionais em que se encontra dividido um texto pertencente ao se encontra dividido um texto pertencente ao género ‘norma’ é muito mais rígida do que a de género ‘norma’ é muito mais rígida do que a de um artigo cientifico numa revista de um artigo cientifico numa revista de especialidade que, por sua vez, é mais rigida do especialidade que, por sua vez, é mais rigida do que a estrutura de um artigo cientifico numa que a estrutura de um artigo cientifico numa revista de divulgação.revista de divulgação.


Método científico Método científico (sequência)(sequência)

Identificação/definição Identificação/definição do problemado problema

Elaboração de uma Elaboração de uma hipótese de soluçãohipótese de solução

Verificação teóricaVerificação teórica

Verificação prática Verificação prática (experiência)(experiência)

Validade/ValidaçãoValidade/Validação

Artigo científico (estrutura)Artigo científico (estrutura)

Abstract (sumário; resumo)Abstract (sumário; resumo)

Introdução (Teoria – Introdução (Teoria – Problema)Problema)

Metodologia (Projecto-Metodologia (Projecto-Métodos –Materiais -Métodos –Materiais -Resultados)Resultados)

DiscussãoDiscussão

ConclusãoConclusão


Riabtseva (1999) English for Specific Purposes

It is possible to collect a list of structures / It is possible to collect a list of structures / expressions typically used in each of the expressions typically used in each of the sections of a scientific article.sections of a scientific article.

The objective is to teach researchers whose The objective is to teach researchers whose mother tongue is not English to write a mother tongue is not English to write a stylistically adequate scientific article.stylistically adequate scientific article.

e.g. for the e.g. for the Results and their interpretationResults and their interpretation, , Riabtseva lists 200 possible constructionsRiabtseva lists 200 possible constructions


ExamplesAs our results/observations indicateAs our results/observations indicateThere is ample evidence to suggest that P (is There is ample evidence to suggest that P (is

related to Q)related to Q)There is a connection (relationship) between There is a connection (relationship) between

P and QP and QThe rate of P depends on changes with the The rate of P depends on changes with the

amount of Qamount of Qetc.etc.


NB

There is a standard way of organizing There is a standard way of organizing information in scientific discourse information in scientific discourse (especially academic discourse) which is (especially academic discourse) which is independent of a specific field of independent of a specific field of knowledge/discipline. However, it is also knowledge/discipline. However, it is also true that each discipline has its true that each discipline has its specific/characteristic discourse specific/characteristic discourse conventions which reflect the way that conventions which reflect the way that discipline proceeds.discipline proceeds.


Textuality / TextualidadeThe set of features which make a text a semantic and The set of features which make a text a semantic and

pragmatic unit.pragmatic unit.

COHERENCECOHERENCE

A text is characterized by coherence; it hangs together. A text is characterized by coherence; it hangs together. At any point after the beginning, what has gone At any point after the beginning, what has gone before provides the environment for what is coming before provides the environment for what is coming next. This sets up internal expectations; and these are next. This sets up internal expectations; and these are matched up with the expectations referred to earlier, matched up with the expectations referred to earlier, that the listener or reader brings from the external that the listener or reader brings from the external sources, from the context of situation and of culture. sources, from the context of situation and of culture. (Haliday and Hasan 1989, p.48)(Haliday and Hasan 1989, p.48)


Cohesion

Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which provide links between the other relations which provide links between the various parts of a text. These relations organize various parts of a text. These relations organize and, to some extent, create a text, for instance by and, to some extent, create a text, for instance by requiring the reader to interpret words and requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions in the surrounding sentences and expressions in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation; it paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation; it connects the actual words that we can see or hear. connects the actual words that we can see or hear. (Baker 1992, p.181)(Baker 1992, p.181)


COHERENCE VS COHESION (Baker, 1992)

Like cohesion, coherence is a network of Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a relations which organize and create a text: cohesion is the network of surface text: cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. Both which underlie the surface text. Both concern the way stretches of language concern the way stretches of language are connected to each other. are connected to each other.


COHESION

In the case of cohesion, stretches In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to of language are connected to each other by virtue of lexical each other by virtue of lexical and grammatical dependencies. and grammatical dependencies.


COHERENCE

In the case of coherence, they are In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning conceptual or meaning dependencies as perceived by dependencies as perceived by language users. (Baker 1992, language users. (Baker 1992, p.218)p.218)


We could say that cohesion is the surface We could say that cohesion is the surface expression of coherence relations, that it is expression of coherence relations, that it is a device for making conceptual relations a device for making conceptual relations explicit. explicit.

BUTBUT

What actually gives texture to a stretch of What actually gives texture to a stretch of language is not so much the presence of language is not so much the presence of cohesive markers but our ability to cohesive markers but our ability to recognize underlying semantic relations recognize underlying semantic relations which establish continuity of sense.which establish continuity of sense.


Grammatical cohesionConnective elements expressing coreference among elements in a text

Reference (anaphora and cataphora)Reference (anaphora and cataphora)

SubstitutionSubstitution

EllipsisEllipsis

Textual connectors (Conjunctions: additive, Textual connectors (Conjunctions: additive, adversative, causal, temporal, etc.; adversative, causal, temporal, etc.; punctuation)punctuation)


Lexical cohesion

It refers to the role played by the selection It refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in organizing relations within of vocabulary in organizing relations within a text. A given lexical item cannot be said a text. A given lexical item cannot be said to have a cohesive function to have a cohesive function per seper se, but any , but any lexical item can enter into a cohesive lexical item can enter into a cohesive relation with other items in a text.relation with other items in a text.

Two main categories (Halliday and Hasan):Two main categories (Halliday and Hasan):ReiterationReiterationCollocationCollocation


Reiteration: repetition of lexical items

Repetition of an earlier itemRepetition of an earlier item Synonym or near-synonym/antonymsSynonym or near-synonym/antonyms Superordinate/HyponymsSuperordinate/Hyponyms

Lexical cohesion typically operates through Lexical cohesion typically operates through lexical chains that run through a text and lexical chains that run through a text and are linked to each other in various ways. are linked to each other in various ways.

Baker 1992, 203-204Baker 1992, 203-204


Repetition

Repetition occurs more frequently in Repetition occurs more frequently in specialized texts than in current language specialized texts than in current language because it makes conceptualization easier because it makes conceptualization easier and it obeys the criteria of rigour and clarity and it obeys the criteria of rigour and clarity which are typical of scientific language (a which are typical of scientific language (a term corresponds to a concept).term corresponds to a concept).


Theme – Rheme (Given-New)

The organization /choice of how to organize The organization /choice of how to organize the information sequence depends mainly the information sequence depends mainly on: the readers’ previous knowledge; the on: the readers’ previous knowledge; the retrievability of information from text and retrievability of information from text and context; the relevance of certain items of context; the relevance of certain items of information in relation to others. information in relation to others.


Foram estudados os efeitos das radiações . . . Foram estudados os efeitos das radiações . . .

Analisou-se/Foram analisadas as relações da Analisou-se/Foram analisadas as relações da dopamina cerebral com as funções motoras.dopamina cerebral com as funções motoras.


Special languages are characterized by the frequency of occurence of certain syntactic patterns:

Nominalization/Nominal styleNominalization/Nominal style Simplification of sentence structure (due to Simplification of sentence structure (due to

the need for concision, clarity and the need for concision, clarity and simplicity). English- sentences with linear simplicity). English- sentences with linear structure; sentences are short and made up structure; sentences are short and made up of one main clause and one subordinate of one main clause and one subordinate clause or only one main clause.clause or only one main clause.


Passive voice /impersonal stylePassive voice /impersonal style More limited use of verb tenses and verb More limited use of verb tenses and verb

formsforms ModalityModality Terminology Terminology Transparency and concisionTransparency and concision Lack of expressiveness/emotivenessLack of expressiveness/emotiveness

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