ARCHEOLOCIE DU NIL MOYEN

Volume 2 - 1987

Ed i teur Francis CEUS

TABLE DES MATIERES CONTENTS

E d i t o r i a l 5

E d i t o r i a l Foreword 7

Resumes - Abstracts 9

Les auteurs - Co n t r i b u t o r s 15

Jacques REINOLD, Les f o u i l l e s pre- et p r o t o - h i s t o r i q u e s de l a Section Frangaise de l a D i r e c t i o n des A n t i q u i t e s du Soudan : Les campagnes 1984-85 et 1985-86 17

avec en annexe Louis CHAIX, Rapport p r e l i m i n a i r e sur l a faune du s i t e de Kadruka I , Soudan Nord (Ne o l i t h i q u e et P r o t o h i s t o r i q u e ) 61 C h r i s t i a n SIMON, Notes anthropologiques sur les restes

humains de Kadruka 63

Yves LECOINTE, Le s i t e n e o l i t h i q u e d'el Ghaba : deux annees d ' a c t i v i t e (1985-1986) 69 Pa t r i c e LENOBLE, Trois tombes de l a region de Meroe, La c l o t u r e des f o u i l l e s h i s t o r i q u e s d f e l Kadada en 1985

et 1986 89

Ginette BILLY, La po p u l a t i o n de l a necropole d'Abri-Missiminia 121 Marek CHLODNICKI, Ceramics from the N e o l i t h i c Cemetery at Kadero - Central Sudan 141

Paul DE PAEPE et Ivan BRIJSSE, La composition des ceramiques d T e l Kadada (Soudan c e n t r a l ) au passage du Meroitique au Postmeroitique 149

avec en annexe P a t r i c e LENOBLE, Commentaires archeologiques 165

Yousif ELAMIN and Abdelrahim M. KHABIR, N e o l i t h i c Pottery from Survey Sites around Shaqadud Cave, Western Butana, Sudan 175

Wlodzimierz GODLEWSKI and Stanislaw MEDEKSZA, The So-called Mosque B u i l d i n g i n Old Dongola (Sudan), a S t r u c t u r a l Analysis 185

Pat r i c e LENOBLE, Quatre tumulus sur m i l l e du Djebel Makbor A.M.S. NE-36-0 / 3-X-l 207

avec en annexe Beatrice PRIVATI, Note sur l a ceramique du tumulus 3 du Djebel Makbor 248 Pat r i c e LENOBLE, A propos des termes soudanais u t i l i s e s dans l e t e x t e 249

J o r i s PETERS, The Faunal Remains c o l l e c t e d by the Bagnold-Mond Expedition i n the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uweinat i n 1938 251

Karim SADR, The T e r r i t o r i a l Expanse of the Pan-Grave Culture

Ouvrages regus

265

293

THE FAUNAL REMAINS COLLECTED BY THE BAGNOLD-MOND EXPEDITION

IN THE C1LF KEBIR AND JEBEL UWEINAT IN 1938

Jor is PETERS 1

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

This succint r e p o r t on the bone remains c o l l e c t e d by the Bag­nold-Mond e x p e d i t i o n i n southwestern Egypt ( G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uwei-nat) i s based on research c a r r i e d out during our Ph.D. program focusing on archaeozoology of l a t e Quaternary s i t e s of c e n t r a l and eastern Sudan (Marks et al. 1985, 1987; Peters 1986a, 1986b) 2.

U n t i l the middle of the 1920 fs, the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uwei-nat were unknown t o the s c i e n t i f i c world. A f t e r the i n i t i a l discovery of Jebel Uweinat i n 1923 by Hassanein Bey (1924a, 1924b) and the pioneer e x p l o r a t i o n s of the north-western Sudan by Newbold (1924), the area be­came the d e s t i n a t i o n of a number of explorers and s c i e n t i s t s ( c f . McHugh 1982a). The f i r s t wave of v i s i t s , ending w i t h World War I I , i s r e f l e c t e d i n an impressive s e r i e s of p u b l i c a t i o n s among which we c i t e : Kemal e l Din 1928; Newbold 1928; Newbold & Shaw 1928; Shaw 1929, 1931, 1934, 1936a, 1936b; Bagnold 1931, 1933; Bagnold et al. 1931; Clayton 1933; d i Caporiacco 1933; Rodd 1933; Sandford 1933a, 1933b, 1935a, 1935b, 1936; Penderel 1934; Almasy 1936. The l a s t prewar s c i e n t i f i c e x p e d i t i o n to the G i l f Kebir-Jebel Uweinat region was l e d by Bagnold i n w i n t e r and sp r i n g of 1938. I t a c t u a l l y was a combined e x p e d i t i o n , w i t h R.A. Bagnold and R.F. Peel responsible f o r g e o l o g i c a l research w h i l e O.H. Myers and H.A. Winkler were responsible f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the arch a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s and the rock a r t . The f i n a n c i a l support f o r Myers' and Winkler's p a r t i c i p a t i o n was provided by S i r Robert Mond. A number of p u b l i c a t i o n s r e s u l t e d from t h i s combined e x p e d i t i o n ; most of these are c i t e d l a t e r i n t h i s paper.

A f t e r World War I I , s c i e n t i f i c research s t a r t e d again from the 1960 fs on, w i t h expeditions by B r i t i s h , Egyptian, Belgian, American, Libyan and German groups : Williams & H a l l 1965; Leonard 1969; Osborn & Krombein 1969; Wendorf et a l . 19.76, 1977; El-Baz et al. 1980; Kuper 1981; Pachur & Röper 1984 etc.

Laboratorium voor Paleontologie, Geologisch I n s t i t u u t , R i j k s u n i v e r s i t e i t Gent, K r i j g s l a a n 281/S8, B-9000 Gent. A comprehensive r e p o r t on the fauna from Jebel Shaqadud w i l l be p u b l i s h ­ed i n the forthcoming p u b l i c a t i o n of the excavations (A. Marks ed.).

Archäologie du N i l Moyen, Vol. 2, 1987. 251

The G i l f Kebir i s a massive sandstone mesa r i s i n g 200-300 m above the surrounding r a t h e r f l a t desert i n southwestern Egypt, about 600 km west of the N i l e ( f i g . 1). I t i s i n t e r s e c t e d by numerous wadis, the l a r g e s t being the Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar and the Wadi e l Bakht. Apart from the w e l l , reputed t o e x i s t i n the Wadi e l Malik, the whole region i s a b s o l u t e l y waterless (Peel 1939) and r a i n f a l l s only at i r r e g u l a r i n ­t e r v a l s . Jebel Uweinat i s a smaller t a b u l a r mountain mass, which l i e s o-ver 70 kilometres t o the southwest of the G i l f Kebir plateau. I t s height ranges from 600 to over 1900 meters, which makes i t high enough to a t ­t r a c t a l i t t l e e x t r a l o c a l r a i n f a l l and t o maintain a poor v e g e t a t i o n (Bagnold 1941; Leonard 1969).

The present day fauna of the G i l f Kebir-Jebel Uweinat area i s not w e l l known, but i t would include two g e r b i l species (Gerbillus ger-b i l l u s y Dipodillus c a m p e s t r i s ) , a jerboa (Jaculus j a c u t u s ) , a spiny mou­se (Acomys c a h i r i n u s ) , Rüppell's sand fox (Vulpes r u e p p e l i ) , fennec (Fennecus z e r d a ) , (Lybian) s t r i p e d weasel (Poecilictis libyca), dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas), rhim (Gazella leptoceros), Barbary sheep (Am-motragus lervia), a few sedentary b i r d s among which a k i n d of desert f i n c h (Rhodopectrys githaginea) and a wheatear species (Oenanthe leuco-Ρ1/9<ζ) * some l i z a r d s , a snake and a number of i n s e c t s (Osborn & Krombein 1969; Misonne 1969, 1974, 1977; Capocaccia 1977). During the w i n t e r , a considerable number of b i r d s v i s i t the area, such as cranes (Grus g r u s ) , the longlegged buzzard (Buteo r u f i n u s ) and the Egyptian v u l t u r e (Neo­phron percnopterus) (Misonne 1974).

2. Descr ip t ion of the faunal remains

The f o l l o w i n g inventory and d e s c r i p t i o n i s based on bone mate­r i a l c o l l e c t e d by O.H. Myers i n 1938 at f i v e s i t e s and stored i n the Os­teology Room of the B r i t i s h Museum (Nat. H i s t . ) , London. The s i t e s are l a b e l l e d 15.000 and 17.000 i n the G i l f Kebir, and Cave 73, Cave 73 ( f r o n t o f ) and Cave 77 at Jebel Uweinat.

Neither the p u b l i c a t i o n s by Myers (1939) or Peel & Bagnold (1939), nor the p r e l i m i n a r y faunal r e p o r t w r i t t e n by D.M.A. Bate ( B r i ­t i s h Museum, Nat. H i s t . ) i n cooperation w i t h J.W. Jackson (Manchester U n i v e r s i t y ) reveal the context of t h i s m a t e r i a l ( i . e . exact provenance, archaeological context, sampling procedure e t c . ) . However, a decade ago, McHugh published the r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s of the a r t i f a c t u a l assem­blages from the same s i t e s , housed i n the Musee de 1!Homme i n Paris (McHugh 1974, 1975). On the basis of three unpublished manuscripts by Myers (s.d., fide McHugh 1982b) which accompany the a r t e f a c t s , McHugh was able t o r e c o n s t r u c t Myers T a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t i e s during l a t e w i n t e r and e a r l y s p r i n g 1938. Most of the time, Myers i n v e s t i g a t e d a se­r i e s of P a l a e o l i t h i c s i t e s , located a l i t t l e t o the n o r t h of the Wadi e l Bakht at the eastern edge of the southern G i l f Kebir. Four other concen­t r a t i o n s of a r t e f a c t s close to or on the b l o c k i n g dune i n Wadi e l Bakht were also sampled. These four s i t e s were numbered as f o l l o w s : 15, 16 Upper Dune, 16 Lower Dune and 17. From t h i s , we can conclude t h a t the s i t e numbers accompanying the bone samples from the G i l f Kebir, 15.000 and 17.000 correspond w i t h the 15 and 17 i n Myers 1 manuscript. Their l o ­c a t i o n i s given i n f i g . 1. Myers apparently spent also several days i n the Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar, but l i t t l e s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e about h i s work there (McHugh 1982b).

252

F i g . 1 Location of the s i t e s discussed i n the t e x t . (1) Wadi e l Bahkt; (2) Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar; (3) Karkur Talh.

Myers also took samples from two or three of the Jebel Uweinat rock s h e l t e r s w i t h p a i n t i n g s . On the basis of the l a b e l s w r i t t e n by Jackson and through h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , given i n h i s l e t t e r s , we can deduce t h a t a s e r i e s of samples are derived from Winkler's s i t e s 73, 73 ( f r o n t o f ) and 77 i n Karkur Talh (Winkler 1939a, 1939b).

The foregoing suggests t h a t the c o l l e c t i n g of bones was only an i n c i d e n t a l a c t i v i t y and, no doubt, sampling took place by handpicking of l a r g e r fragments; t h i s would e x p l a i n the f a c t t h a t remains from small v e r t e b r a t e s such as rodents or hyrax are l a c k i n g i n the a v a i l a b l e sam­ples. The foregoing biased sampling l i m i t s the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the m a t e r i a l considerably.

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The osseous remains a v a i l a b l e f o r restudy were the f o l l o w i n g : Si t e 17 ( G i l f Kebir) produced the r i c h e s t assemblage. On the basis of the degree of f o s s i l i s a t i o n , the c o l l e c t i o n can be d i v i d e d i n t o three groups : (1) Grey-coloured m a t e r i a l , (presumably of Pleistocene age), coated w i t h p o o r l y sorted e l a s t i c s and h e a v i l y f o s s i l i s e d , may be d e r i v ­ed from a P a l a e o l i t h i c occupation (see f u r t h e r ) ; (2) Red t o dark brown or black coloured m a t e r i a l , sometimes coated w i t h sand; the s i m i l a r i t i e s i n colour and f o s s i l i s a t i o n between these remains and those c o l l e c t e d by Wendorf et al. (1976) at the same s i t e i n d i c a t e t h a t our c o l l e c t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y associated w i t h the N e o l i t h i c occupation there. Our m a t e r i a l also underwent considerable aeolian erosion, r e f l e c t e d i n the abraded a r t i c u l a r bone surfaces and f r a c t u r e s , suggesting a long exposure on the surface; (3) White to yellow or orange coloured, and presumably younger bone fragments, almost not f o s s i l i s e d and r a t h e r h e a v i l y weathered ( s t a ­ges 3 t o 5 sensu Behrensmeyer 1978). Part of t h i s m a t e r i a l may w e l l be k i t c h e n refuse of nomadic t r i b e s who r e c e n t l y v i s i t e d the wadi w i t h t h e i r animals, as f o r example the Tubus ( c f . Van Noten 1978 : 22).

The o l d e s t group only contains one fragment, i . e . an incomple­te i n c i s o r of a hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius). The i n t e r p r e t a ­t i o n of t h i s f i n d remains a problem (see f u r t h e r ) .

As s a i d , the bulk of the m a t e r i a l of s i t e 17 consists of bone m a t e r i a l (group 2 ) , which we associate w i t h the N e o l i t h i c . At l e a s t f o u r w i l d and two domesticated mammalian species were recognised, i . e . g i r a f ­f e (Giraffa camelopardalis), addax (Addax nasomaculatus), dorcas g a z e l l e (Gazella dorcas), dama (Gazella dama), goat (Copra aegagrus f . h i r c u s ) and c a t t l e (Bos primigenius f . t a u r u s ) . With the exception of the g i r a f ­f e , i d e n t i f i e d on the basis of p o s t c r a n i a l remains, a l l the species are represented by incomplete horn cores, m a x i l l a s and/or mandibles.

Due t o the pronounced fragmentation and the l a c k of d i a g n o s t i c f e a t u r e s , a number of p o s t c r a n i a l remains could not be a t t r i b u t e d s p e c i ­f i c a l l y . We c l a s s i f i e d them i n size categories ( c f . Peters 1986a and su­pra p. 251, note 2) : medium antelopes (Gazella/'Ammotragus), l a r g e ante­lopes (Addax/Oryx) and small bovids (sheep/goat and/or Gazella d o r c a s ) .

Among the younger remains (group 3 ) , we recognised an incom­p l e t e mandible of a canid (Canis s p . ) , a fragment of a lower jaw w i t h broken molars of c a t t l e and two t a r s a l bones, p e r t a i n i n g t o e i t h e r small to medium antelopes or to small l i v e s t o c k . Whether the canid mandible belongs to a domestic dog could not be e s t a b l i s h e d ; i f not, i t can be r e f e r r e d most probably t o the golden j a c k a l (Canis aureus).

I n c o n t r a s t w i t h s i t e 17, s i t e 15 of the G i l f Kebir produced a poor assemblage : a l o t of bone chips and an incomplete humerus, perhaps of a r e p t i l e ( t u r t l e ? ) . Both t h e i r colour and the degree of f o s s i l i s a -t i o n i n d i c a t e an age closer to t h a t of group 3 from s i t e 17.

The m a t e r i a l from Cave 73 (Jebel Uweinat) can also be d i v i d e d according t o i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n s t a t e . Most of the fragments (group 1) are s l i g h t l y f o s s i l i s e d and i n t h a t sense comparable w i t h the m a t e r i a l of group 2 at s i t e 17. A second group contains m a t e r i a l comparable w i t h t h a t of group 3 at s i t e 17.

The f o s s i l bone fragments from Cave 73 (group 1) con t a i n few i d e n t i f i a b l e specimens : a lower molar of dorcas g a z e l l e , an incomplete molar of c a t t l e and fo u r fragments of small bovids. The younger remains

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from Cave 73 (group 2) y i e l d f o u r phalanges (2 medial, 2 d i s t a l ) , presu­mably from one, subadult dorcas g a z e l l e .

The f o l l o w i n g remains were found i n f r o n t of Cave 73 : two s h e l l s of the t i n y land s n a i l Zootecus insularis, three incomplete pha­langes (two proximal, one medial) of dorcas gazelle and 14 t o o t h f r a g ­ments (one i n d i v i d u a l ?) which we ascribed to c a t t l e . The s t a t e of these specimens suggest an age close to t h a t of group 1 from the Cave 73 c o l ­l e c t i o n .

Cave 77 y i e l d e d four i d e n t i f i a b l e specimens : a metacarpus fragment, which we ascribed t o a small bovid, and three fragments c l a s ­s i f i e d as u n i d e n t i f i e d bovids.

The Museum c o l l e c t i o n s furthermore produced some i n t e r e s t i n g specimens also c o l l e c t e d by the Bagnold-Mond e x p e d i t i o n . Their exact provenance i s not known, but given the l a b e l s added by Jackson (in litt.), a Jebel Uweinat o r i g i n may w e l l be considered. The specimens are the f o l l o w i n g : c i r c a 20 fragments (one i n d i v i d u a l ) of the skeleton of a sea u r c h i n (? Clypeaster s p . ) , one incomplete cowrey s h e l l (Cypraea pan-therina ? ) , one s h e l l fragment of a large b i v a l v e (? Aspatharia s p . ) , three Zootecus insularis s h e l l s and one o s t r i c h egg s h e l l fragment.

The c o l l e c t i o n s of the B r i t i s h Museum also contain a l o t of bone specimens which we could not i d e n t i f y . Because of the s e l e c t i v e sampling method used, we d i d not pay much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r q u a n t i f i ­c a t i o n .

Three i n t e r e s t i n g bone fragments (from Jebel Uweinat ? ) , men­tion e d by Jackson (in litt. ; see also the p r e l i m i n a r y f a u n a l r e p o r t by Bate) remained i n Manchester and were never sent to the B r i t i s h Museum : a gazelle horn core, a horn core from Barbary sheep (Ammotvagus levvia) and a l a r g e bone (a radius ? ) , t e n t a t i v e l y ascribed t o Loxodonta africa-na by Jackson. This specimen appeared to be very f r a g i l e w i t h many p i e ­ces broken o f f (Jackson, in litt.). As g i r a f f e , which has q u i t e bulky bones, i s present i n the c o l l e c t i o n s , the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h i s s p e c i ­men as elephant may not be v a l i d . I n a d d i t i o n t o these bones, Jackson reported the presence of o s t r i c h egg s h e l l fragments, presumably also from Jebel Uweinat.

3. Evaluat ion and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the faunal remains

3.1. Taphonomy

H i s t o r i c a l l y seen, the faunal samples described above, are i n ­t e r e s t i n g , but t h e i r s c i e n t i f i c value i s r a t h e r l i m i t e d because of pro­blems concerning t h e i r provenance, the f a c t t h a t sampling was done by i n c i d e n t a l handpicking, and most important because of the absence of a cl e a r s u b d i v i s i o n of the m a t e r i a l according to i t s arc h a e o l o g i c a l con­t e x t . The r e s u l t i n g data should t h e r e f o r e be handled w i t h c a u t i o n .

I n p r i n c i p l e , two taphonomic categories (Gautier, i n press) are present, namely animals (or t h e i r products such as f o r example eggs) which were brought to the s i t e by man, and those f o r which man i s not responsible, i . e . the i n t r u s i v e elements. The f i r s t category can be

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d i v i d e d i n t o two groups : (1) animals brought to the s i t e s f o r v a r i o u s reasons, the most important being foodsupply, and (2) the e x o t i c e l e ­ments. No doubt the remains of g i r a f f e , g a z e l l e , addax, c a t t l e and goat represent e s s e n t i a l l y k i t c h e n refuse. The e x o t i c elements include the incomplete s h e l l s of a cowrey (Cypraea s p . ) , a l a r g e b i v a l v e (? Aspafha-r i a sp.) and a sea u r c h i n (? Clypeaster sp.). These faunal elements p o i n t t o some s o r t of connection w i t h the N i l e V a l l e y , the Red Sea and perhaps w i t h the Mediterranean.

The l a n d s n a i l Zootecus insularis can be considered an i n t r u s i ­ve element : i t s small size makes i t improper f o r consumption and both the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uweinat l i e w i t h i n i t s zoo-geographical range (Verdcourt 1960). We assume t h a t t h i s s n a i l may w e l l be a penecontempo-raneous i n t r u s i v e , as i s the case i n many other northeast A f r i c a n s i t e s as f o r example at Jebel Shaqadud (supra p. 251, note 2 ) .

The hippopotamus i n c i s o r poses a problem. Perhaps i t i s an element derived from a l o c a l P a l a e o l i t h i c s i t e , i n which case i t may be a f o s s i l brought t o the N e o l i t h i c s i t e by man, i . e . a l o c a l manuport. I t may also be an e x o t i c manuport, or even a bone picked up by the expedi­t i o n on i t s way and i n a d v e r t a n t l y mixed w i t h the s i t e 17 m a t e r i a l .

The canid mandible from s i t e 17 (group 3) can be derived e i ­ther from a carcass of a dog l e f t by p o s t - N e o l i t h i c v i s i t o r s or i n h a b i ­t a n t s of the s i t e , or from a carcass of a w i l d canid, i n which case i t i s not n e c e s s a r i l y associated w i t h the human occupation.

3.2. Palaeoeconomy

As already pointed out i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o evaluate the s i g n i ­ficance of the samples described. F o r t u n a t e l y , the same areas have been v i s i t e d by other e x p e d i t i o n s , and a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n concerning the archaeology and the age of Myers 1 and other s i t e s has been gathered (Wendorf et a l . 1976; Van Noten 1978; Kuper 1981, McHugh 1982b; Pachur & Röper 1984a, 1984b; De Paepe 1986).

I n the G i l f Kebir, two areas have been r e v i s i t e d , namely the Wadi e l Bakht close to the b l o c k i n g dune and the Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar. I n 1974, Wendorf and h i s team c a r r i e d out excavations, presumably at the same spot where Myers took h i s samples (Wendorf et al. 1976). An o s t r i c h egg s h e l l fragment found i n the uppermost playa sediment y i e l d e d a r a ­diocarbon date of 6980 ± 80 BP (SMU 273) f o r the f i n a l stage of the p l a ­ya (Haynes 1983). This date i s succeeded by others obtained by Pachur and Röper i n 1977 (1984a, 1984b) on c a l c i f i e d r o ots i n a e o l i a n i t e s (7585 ± 80 BP; Hv 11 648) and charcoal (8715 ± 870 B p 5 H v 1 1 6 4 4 > f r o m

playa sediments below the surface.

I n 1978, another i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y group v i s i t e d the Wadi e l Bakht b l o c k i n g dune (El-Baz 1983; El-Baz et a l . 1980). Archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out by McHugh (1982b) and confined t o the northern p a r t of the ancient lake deposits and to the n o r t h shoulder and west of the b l o c k i n g dune. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no datable m a t e r i a l has been recovered. The same group also paid a b r i e f v i s i t to Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar.

The team l e d by Kuper ( c f . Kuper 1981) c a r r i e d out f i v e sea­sons of f i e l d w o r k t o i n v e s t i g a t e mainly a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s i n the G i l f

256

Kebir and i n the Wadi Howar, but the f i n a l r e s u l t s of t h i s p r o j e c t are not published y e t . P r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s , however, i n d i c a t e t h a t the playa formation, observed at the b l o c k i n g dune i n Wadi e l Bakht, also happened i n the Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar. The playas i n both wadi ?s may have essen­t i a l l y the same age. The human occupation from Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar da­tes from about 7700 ± 60 BP t o 3860 BP (Kuper 1981).

From Jebel Uweinat, a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n has been gathered by a Belgian-Libyan team i n the f a l l and w i n t e r of 1968-69. The archaeo­l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s focused mainly on P a l a e o l i t h i c s i t e s , although N e o l i t h i c s i t e s i n Karkur Talh and Karkur Ibrahim were also sampled (de H e i n z e l i n et al. 1969; Van Noten 1978).

The i d e n t i f i e d f a u n a l remains c o l l e c t e d by Myers and l a t e r groups are l i s t e d i n t a b l e 1. We d i d also include i n f o r m a t i o n concerning the sampling area, the c o l l e c t o r ( s ) and the person who c a r r i e d out the faunal a n a l y s i s ; the dates r e f e r to the p u b l i c a t i o n ( s ) i n which the f a u ­n a l remains are mentioned or described. A few comments should be added to t h i s t a b l e ; numbers between brackets correspond w i t h those i n the t a ­b l e . (1) The carnivore remains from Wadi e l Bakht were erroneously l a ­b e l l e d domestic dog; i n f a c t they p e r t a i n to the s t r i p e d hyaena, Hyaena hyaena (Gautier, pers. comm.). (2) The elephant molar, c o l l e c t e d at Jebel Uweinat, i s a surface f i n d associated w i t h N e o l i t h i c l i t h i c s and ceramics (Van Noten 1978 : 29); however, i t s taphonomic sta t u s i s not c l e a r : k i t c h e n refuse ? Or a l o c a l or e x o t i c manuport ? (3) The i d e n t i ­f i c a t i o n of a few bone fragments from Jebel Uweinat (Karkur Talh) as Sömmerrings ga z e l l e (Gazella soemmevvingi) by Misonne ( i n Van Noten 1978 : 29) should probably be r e j e c t e d . This species i s today confined to the east of the N i l e , ranging from eastern Nubia to the Red Sea, and from northern E t h i o p i a t o southern Somalia ( H a l t e n o r t h & D i l l e r 1979 : 80); we doubt whether t h i s g a z e l l e ever roamed west of the N i l e . Most l i k e l y , t h i s m a t e r i a l can be a t t r i b u t e d to Gazella dama because dama has approximately the same size and i t s present day d i s t r i b u t i o n includes l a r g e p a r t s of the Sahara and the Sahel zone, west of the N i l e . (4) We c l a s s i f i e d the Bubalus remains mentioned by Pachur and Röper (1984a) as l a r g e bovid. (5) The l a r g e , u n i d e n t i f i e d bones from Wadi (Ard) e l Akhdar can most probably be a t t r i b u t e d to large bovids (Gautier, pers. comm.).

From the combined evidence, i t becomes obvious t h a t the N e o l i ­t h i c i n h a b i t a n t s of the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uweinat area r e l i e d on hun­t i n g - g a t h e r i n g - h e r d i n g f o r t h e i r foodsupplies. Hunting i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the remains of dassie, dorcas g a z e l l e , dama, addax, Barbary sheep, g i ­r a f f e and maybe also elephant. Herding p r a c t i s e s , on the other hand, are r e f l e c t e d by the presence of c a t t l e and small l i v e s t o c k among the bone fragments. Goats appear i n the faunal record, but the presence of sheep could not be e s t a b l i s h e d . This p i c t u r e i s confirmed t o a l a r g e extent by the numerous rock p a i n t i n g s and engravings which occur i n both areas, f i g u r i n g antelopes, Barbary sheep, g i r a f f e s , c a t t l e and goats; other species, absent i n the c o l l e c t i o n s but present i n rock a r t are s c i m i t a r -horned oryx, l i o n , dog and camel (e.g. Bermann 1934; Winkler 1939a, 1939b; Rhotert 1952; Misonne & Van Noten 1969; Van Noten 1978). Accord­ing to Van Noten (ibid.), c a t t l e and dogs may have been introduced i n the area f i r s t , l a t e r f o l l o w e d by goats; the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the camel dates from the p o s t - N e o l i t h i c period. This sequence i s based on a t e n t a ­t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the rock a r t by the same author, not accepted by a l l s p e c i a l i s t s ( c f . M u z z o l i n i 1983).

257

TABLE 1 Ln 00

>v A v a i l a b l e c o l l e c t i o n s G e n e r a l a r e a G I L F KEBIR J E B E L UWEI NAT

χ . S p e c i f i c a r e a WADI EL BAKHT WAD I (ARD) EL AKHDAR Κ ARKUR TALH KARKUR I B R A H I M

Main c o l l e c t o r MYERS WENDORF MCHUGH (1982) PACHUR (1984b) MCHUGH KUPER (1981) PACHUR (1984a)

MYERS VAN NOTEN (1978) VAN NOTEN ( 1 9 7 8 )

V e r t e b r a t e g r o u p / s p e c i e s { * ) I d e n t i f i e d / r e v i s e d by PETERS GAUTIER (1980) GAUTIER (1982) UERPMANN GAUTIER (1982) UERPMANN PACHUR (1984a)

PETERS MISONNE MISONNE

B i r d s

O s t r i c h ( S t r u t h i o camelus; egg s h e l l fragments) • - • • Aves i n d e t . - - •

Wild Mammals

S t r i p e d hyaena (Hyaena hyaena)

A f r i c a n elephant (Loxodonta a f r i c a n a )

• (1) - - - - - • (2)

D a s s i e ( P r o c a v i a sp.?) - - • G i r a f f e ( G i r a f f a c a m e l o p a r d a l i s ) • - • • -

Addax (Addax nasomaculatus) • - -Dorcas g a z e l l e ( G a z e l l a d o r c a s ) • • - - - • Sönunerrinqs g a z e l l e ( G a z e l l a soemmerringi) - - - - - - - • ? ( 3 )

Dama ( G a z e l l a dama) • - - - - • ? ( 3 )

Barbary sheep (Anunotragus l e r v i a ) - - • -Medium antelo p e s • Large a n t e l o p e s • - - * -

G a z e l l e - • - • Antelope - •

Domesticated Mammals

Goat (Capra aegagrus f . h i r c u s ) • - -Small l i v e s t o c k (goat and/or sheep) - • • - • C a t t l e (Bos p r i m i g e n i u s f . t a u r u s ) • • • - •

Wild or domesticated Mammals

Small bovid • - • - - - • Large bovid • • • (4) • ? ( 5 ) •

* The numbers between b r a c k e t s are e x p l a i n e d i n the t e x t .

The gathering a c t i v i t i e s c e r t a i n l y included the c o l l e c t i n g of p l a n t foods, such as cereals ( c f . m i l l i n g stones) and o s t r i c h eggs. Pre­sumably the p l a n t species or products e x p l o i t e d were l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e under t h e i r w i l d forms, but the p o s s i b i l i t y of domesticated cereals can­not be discounted.

Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o assess the q u a n t i t a t i v e importance of the d i f f e r e n t food items on the basis of the a v a i l a b l e evidence, i t i s c l e a r t h a t the bio-environment provided v a r i e d resources which enabl­ed people t o adopt a d i f f u s e economy sensu Cleland (1976). Such a s t r a ­tegy i s ge n e r a l l y characterised by a c a r e f u l scheduling i n time and spa­ce t o maximize the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the a v a i l a b l e resources. For the mo­ment, several e x p l o i t a t i o n models can be suggested and defended : seaso­n a l or year round occupation, w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s between e a r l y herders and l a t e r i n h a b i t a n t s and so on. Our knowledge i s , however, too l i m i t e d t o make a d e l i b e r a t e choice among the possible ( h y p o t h e t i c a l ) models.

3.3. Palaeoecology/ palaeoclimatology

Archaeozoological data can be used t o make a t e n t a t i v e recon­s t r u c t i o n of the paleoenvironment (e.g. Gautier 1983; Peters 1986a). Such a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s based on the a c t u a l e c o l o g i c a l requirements of the animals encountered. As f a r as the w i l d mammals l i s t e d i n t a b l e 1 are concerned, s i m i l a r requirements can be noted. Dorcas g a z e l l e , dama, addax, Barbary sheep feed on grasses as w e l l as f o l i a g e of t r e e s and shrubs; they are considered mixed feeders. G i r a f f e s , on the other hand, are predominantly browsers, u t i l i s i n g a wide range of food p l a n t s , a l ­though they w i l l graze o c c a s i o n a l l y on f r e s h sprouting grasses (Smithers 1983 : 595). The d i e t of dassies consists mainly of browse, but herbs, f r u i t s , i n s e c t s and even small v e r t e b r a t e s are also eaten ( H a l t e n o r t h & D i l l e r 1979 : 110).

A l l the species mentioned are almost completely independent of water, o b t a i n i n g t h e i r moisture requirements from t h e i r food p l a n t s .

The two domesticated species found i n the assemblage are ca t ­t l e and goat. C a t t l e are t y p i c a l grazers, and good q u a l i t y pasture as w e l l as surface water i s necessary to keep them i n good h e a l t h . Goats are less p a r t i c u l a r about t h e i r food requirements, but s t i l l need water t o survive dry l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

I f the animals, l i s t e d i n t a b l e 1, are from i n d i v i d u a l s which died w i t h i n the same perio d (middle Holocene ? ) , the faun a l spectrum ob­tain e d suggests a dry environment around Jebel Uweinat and the G i l f Ke­b i r , probably w i t h Sahelian l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . We use the term Sahel f o r the t r a n s i t i o n zone between the Sahara and the savanna, w i t h an average annual r a i n f a l l between 100 and 500 mm (Maley 1977). On the basis of the foregoing, we can imagine a f l o r a l p a t t e r n i n the area c o n s i s t i n g of grassy (seasonal ?) p l a i n s , probably w i t h a d i s j u n c t ground cover, no doubt w i t h some concentrations of bushes and trees at more favourable places such as wadis. Precise estimations of the annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n cannot be based on w i l d mammals such as dorcas g a z e l l e , dama or addax; these animals undertake l a r g e scale migrations i f food becomes ra r e . P a s t o r a l i s t s are known to t r a v e l w i t h t h e i r f l o c k s according to the a-v a i l a b l e pasture. G i r a f f e s , however, do not migrate over considerable distances, although they are great wanderers because t h e i r food i s gene­r a l l y w e l l dispersed (Kingdon 1979 : 329). As a consequence, t h e i r home

259

ranges can be very extensive e s p e c i a l l y during the r a i n s when the a n i ­mals s t a r t wandering (650 km 2; Kingdon, ibid.); during the dry season, the animals remain i n a r e l a t i v e l y small area ( i n Tsavo N a t i o n a l Park 160 km 2, c f . Leuthold 1977 : 44). We t h e r e f o r e consider the G i l f Kebir remains of g i r a f f e t o be derived from a l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . Such a popula­t i o n no doubt also has ex i s t e d at Jebel Uweinat, as the rock a r t i n d i c a ­tes. Whether at the moment the human s i t e s were i n h a b i t e d , the g i r a f f e s formed a k i n d of r e l i c t p o p u l a t i o n , derived from a much l a r g e r ( e a r l y Holocene ?) group, remains an open question. Anyhow, the food r e q u i r e ­ments of g i r a f f e s suggests a minimum annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n of ca. 200 mm i n the area around the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uweinat. Both mountain mas­ses probably received more r a i n , e s p e c i a l l y Jebel Uweinat (max. height ca. 1900 m ! ) , p a r t of which ended up i n the wadis and the surrounding p l a i n s . I n f a c t our estimate of 200 mm p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r the p l a i n s may be too h i g h , because of t h i s a d d i t i o n a l moisture r e s u l t i n g from r a i n s i n the j e b e l s .

From the foregoing, we can conclude t h a t the c l i m a t i c condi­t i o n s , p r e v a i l i n g during the time t h a t the G i l f Kebir and Jebel Uweinat were i n h a b i t e d by P r e h i s t o r i c man, were b e t t e r than today. I t i s c l e a r , however, t h a t new excavations and more dates are necessary to provide us w i t h a more c o r r e c t and d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e of P r e h i s t o r i c man and h i s environment i n the southwestern p a r t of the eastern Sahara.

Acknowledgements

I am g r e a t l y indebted t o Dr. J. Clutton-Brock and Dr. K. Bryan (Osteology Room, B r i t i s h Museum of Nat u r a l H i s t o r y , London) f o r g i v i n g me the o p p o r t u n i t y to restudy t h i s f a unal m a t e r i a l . I also want t o thank Prof. Dr. A. Gautier f o r h i s suggestions concerning the treatment of the data and f o r reading the manuscript. Mrs. N. Reynaert typed the f i n a l v e r s i o n of the manuscript. This work was supported by a research grant of the I.W.O.N.L. (Brussels) and a t r a v e l grant of the Vlaamse Weten-schappelijke S t i c h t i n g (Leuven).

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